<p>Stora Karlsö is an island off the west coast of Gotland, Sweden; part of Eksta socken. It is mostly known for its rich birdlife with large colonies of common guillemot, and flora. Stora Karlsö is a nature reserve, the second oldest in the world after Yellowstone National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Stora Karlsö is a small Swedish island in the Baltic Sea, situated about 6 km west of the island of Gotland. It has an area of about 2.5 km&sup2; and is up to 52 m high. Most of the island consists of a limestone plateau, bordered by steep cliffs along the shore. It is mostly covered with alvar, with many juniper bushes and some small groves of deciduous trees.</p><br>
<h2>Birds and plants</h2><br>
<p>The island is mostly known for its rich birdlife and flora. It has large colonies of common guillemot (about 7500 breeding pairs) and razorbill (4500 pairs). In spring, there is an extraordinary number of orchids, mostly elder-flowered orchid and early purple orchid. There are also several very rare plants for Sweden such as Adonis vernalis, Lactuca quercina (called Karlsösallat in Swedish), hart&#39;s-tongue fern and Corydalis gotlandica (the only endemic plant on Gotland).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>There is evidence that Stora Karlsö has been inhabited since the Stone Age. During the Middle Ages there was a marble quarry, which gave the material for many of Gotland&#39;s churches. The island is a nature reserve, and after Yellowstone National Park is the oldest established protected nature area in the world. From May to August there are tour boats from the village Klintehamn.</p><br>
<p>The Stora Karlsö Lighthouse was built in 1887. A house for the lighthouse keeper was added in the 1930s, which resulted in the island getting its first permanent residents in modern times. Since 1974, the lighthouse is automated and there are no permanent residents on the island. The lighthouse and the surrounded buildings are now listed.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal was a towpath canal built and operated in the mid-19th century in Upstate New York in the United States. It was 97 miles long and for much of its course followed the Chenango River, along Rt. 12 N-S from Binghamton on the south end to Utica on the north end. It operated from 1834 to 1878 and provided a significant link in the water transportation system of the northeastern USA, connecting the Susquehanna River to the Erie Canal.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The canal was first proposed in the New York Legislature in 1824 during the construction of the Erie Canal, prompted by lobbying from local leaders in the Chenango Valley. It was authorized by the legislature in 1833 and completed in October 1836 at a total cost of $2,500,000- approximately twice the original appropriation. In 1833 a grand ball was held in Oxford, NY, which feted the canal&#39;s approval. The great American civil engineer John B. Jervis was appointed Chief Engineer of the project and helped in its design. This was an era of extensive canal building in the United States, following the English model, in order to provide a major transportation network for the eastern United States.</p><br>
<p>The excavation began in 1834 and was largely done by Irish and Scottish immigrant laborers, digging by hand, using pick and shovel, chipping through rock and wading through marsh. They were paid $11 per month, which was three times a common laborer&#39;s wages at the time. Skilled workers came from the completed Erie Canal project and brought new inventions, such as an ingenious stump-puller, which used oxen or mules for animal power. Work camps for the laborers were established along the route and as many as 500 men stayed in each camp. The canal opened in October, 1836, and was billed as the “best-built canal in the state”.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal was 42 feet wide at the top and 26 feet wide at the bottom and averaged 4 feet deep. It had 116 locks, 11 lock houses, 12 dams, 19 aqueducts, 52 culverts, 56 road bridges, 106 farm bridges, 53 feeder bridges, and 21 waste weirs. The Chenango was unique in that it was the first reservoir-fed canal in the USA In this design, reservoirs were created and feeder canals were dug to bring water to the summit level of the canal. This had been done previously in Europe, but had not been tried in the US. This project had to succeed by getting almost 23 miles of waterway up an incline with a 706’ elevation, to the summit level in Bouckville, and back down a descent of 303’ to the Susquehanna river in Binghamton. At a time when there were no engineering schools in the country, and hydrology was not yet a scientific discipline, Jervis and his team were able to design a complex waterway that was considered the best of its day.</p><br>
<h2>System</h2><br>
<p>The main artery Erie Canal was built between 1817 and 1825 and provided the key link in a water highway to what would become the Midwestern United States, connecting to the Great Lakes at Buffalo. It connected the Great Lakes to the Hudson River and then to the port of New York City. The Erie made use of the favorable conditions of New York&#39;s unique topography which provided that area with the only break in the Appalachian range—allowing for east-west navigation from the Atlantic coast to the Great Lakes. The canal system gave New York State a competitive advantage, helped New York City develop as an international trade center, and allowed Buffalo to grow from just 2,000 settlers in 1820 to over 18,000 people by 1840. The port of New York became essentially the Atlantic home port for all of the Great Lakes states. It was because of this vital and critical connection that New York State became known as the Empire State.</p><br>
<p>The Erie Canal represented the first major water-works project in the United States. It proved the practicality of large-scale water diversions without disrupting the local environment. The canal connected the waters of Lake Erie to the tidewater of New York harbor in a multi-level route that followed the local terrain and was fed by local water sources. All of the New York branch canals would follow this model. With the Erie, as with all of the branch canals, water flow was required for several purposes: filling the canal at the beginning of each spring season; water for lockage, i.e., water loss from higher to lower levels; water loss by seepage through the berm and towpath banks and water diverted for industrial power usage. Consequently, flooding and droughts were perennial problems for all of the New York canals.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal operated from 1834 to 1878, from April to November each year. The opening of the canal cut the shipping time from Binghamton to Albany from 9 to 4 days, and reduced the cost of shipping goods dramatically. It was intended to connect Binghamton and surrounding communities, by water route, to the port of New York City and to the Great Lakes States.</p><br>
<p>The northern terminus of the Chenango Canal was in Utica at an entry lock near present-day N. Genessee Street and the Erie Canal; the southern terminus was in Binghamton at a turning basin near present-day State and Susquehanna Streets. State Street in Binghamton was built on the path of the canal in 1872. The village of Port Dickinson and the hamlets of Port Crane and Pecksport owe their origins and names to being stops on the route. With the coming of the Chenango Canal, Port Crane, being located on the line of this waterway, developed rapidly, with stores, hotels, boat yards and repair and dry docks being built in that village. For some time beginning in 1837, the canal afforded shipping facilities to these and other such isolated areas, which were gradually improved. Between 1840 and 1865, for example, the village of Port Crane reached the height of its prosperity. Overall, the construction of the canal led to a widespread manufacturing and building boom in the Chenango Valley.</p><br>
<p>A western extension, commonly known as the Extension Canal, was begun in 1840. The Extension continued west along the south side of the Susquehanna River, as far as Vestal. Officially named the Chenango Canal Extension, it was for the purpose of "making connection with the Pennsylvania canal system, and thus to complete a route to the vast coal fields in that state, the New York Legislature, on April 18, 1838, passed an act (chapter 292) directing the canal commissioners to cause a survey to be made from the termination of the Chenango canal at Binghamton, along the valley of the Susquehanna, to the State line near Tioga Point, at the termination of the North Branch canal of Pennsylvania, and to cause an estimate of the cost of this continuation to be made." Also it would connect with western New York through the Junction and Chemung canals, Seneca lake, and the Cayuga and Seneca and the Erie canals.</p><br>
<p>In the original plan, the Chenango Canal was supposed to connect the Erie Canal with the Pennsylvania Canal. But the connecting canals in the southern part of the state and in northern Pennsylvania were never fully completed nor totally operational. One section would fall into disrepair before the rest of the line was completed. Also, this canal</p><br>
<p>was begun at the close of the canal era, and the era ended before the line could be completed.</p><br>
<p>The extension was not the only segment with operational problems. The Chenango Canal had its problems, as well. Most significantly, the Chenango Co. had difficulty performing its regular maintenance due to the often prohibitively high repair costs. As with most canal lines in the East, they began operation carrying too much debt. If the company did not show a wide enough margin from the user fees during the season, they would end the year at a deficit. Also, as with many similar canals, the Chenangos greatest error was that they initially installed a system using wooden locks. With New Yorks frigid winters and freeze-thaw cycles, the wood never held up for very long. As soon as one section had been repaired, another would give out, and it usually took more time and money than was available before they were all in operation. The original structures were incrementally all rebuilt. Ultimately and at great cost, the process culminated in the construction of stone locks.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>The competition kept the freight rates low. Before the canal was built, it took between 9 and 13 days to ship goods by wagon from Binghamton to Albany, for a cost of $1.25 per 100 pounds. A canal boat made the trip in less than four days and cost $.25 per 100 pounds. Records also show an example of a fare on a packet line that ran between Norwich and Binghamton. The fare was $1.50 per person, departing at 6 am, arriving sometime between 6 and 8 pm.</p><br>
<p>Many classes of boats frequented the Chenango Canal and included packet boats, scows, lakers and bullheads- the name for the freight barges, which were the most common boats seen. The bullhead was so named because of its blunt and rounded bow. They were about 14 feet wide and 75 feet long and were sometimes loaded so heavily that they would periodically drag along the bottom of the canal. The packet boats and barges were drawn at an average speed of four miles an hour by horse or mule teams on the towpath. The passenger boats were usually pulled by horses, which were changed every ten miles. The freight barges were pulled by mules, which were changed every 4 to 6 hours. Each barge had two cabins: one at the bow to stable the animals, usually horses or mules, that pulled the boat, and one at the stern which served as a living quarters for the captain and crew, and sometimes a whole family. The packet boats bore names like The Madison of Solsville, with Captain Bishop, or Fair Play, with Captain Van Slyck, and were manned by a minimum crew of 3. Each boat needed a driver walking on the towpath controlling the animals, a bowsman controlling the movement and direction of the bow and a steersman on the aft deck. The passengers were seated in chairs on the top deck. When the boat would near a town, the crewmen shouted: "Low bridge!" and everyone would retreat to the lower deck to avoid being swept overboard by a bridge.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<p>The first packet boat, The Dove of Solsville, arrived in Binghamton from Utica May 6, 1837, officially opening the canal, and was quickly followed by new development along the canal&#39;s route. The area benefited from the arrival of new settlers, new and needed merchandise and the provision of a means of shipping finished goods and product in and out of the local areas. Mills and factories sprang up along the southern end of the canal, while stores and hotels arose all along the retail corridor. Numerous and varied supporting businesses also flourished, including taverns, inns and boat yards- for building and repair. Farmers now had an efficient, affordable and dependable means of transportation enabling them to sell their perishable milk production to butter and cheese factories; the factories could readily ship their product to market. Apple cider and cider vinegar were shipped from Mott’s, at what is now the Bouckville Mill. Lumber mills had affordable availability of their resources and access to their markets. In a few instances, however, mills were forced to cease operation. Such was the case with Madison’s Solsville Mills, whose water supply from Oriskany Creek was diverted away to be used for the supply of the canal.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango also allowed for efficient, comfortable and relatively fast passenger transportation. New residents arrived from Utica, most having come in through New Yorks port. The canals construction laborers themselves were largely immigrants who stayed and settled in the area after the construction was completed. In 1861, the canal transported 1000 soldiers of the 114th Regiment from Norwich to Utica, in a flotilla of 10 packet boats. This was the first leg of their journey southward to serve in the Union Army during the war. Each town through which they passed met them with flags, fanfare and patriotic fervor. A watercolor painting celebrating that event hangs today in the Chenango Museum in Norwich.</p><br>
<p>The canal itself was also utilized for recreation. In the summer months it supported swimming, boating and fishing. In the winter months, after the surface froze over, ice skating and even horse racing became favorite pastimes.</p><br>
<p>Before the Chenango Canal was built, much of the Southern Tier and Central New York was still considered to be frontier. The people there lived as pioneers everywhere lived, a rugged and rustic existence, without the prosperity and possessions enjoyed by much of the rest of the state. The people petitioned for a canal corridor so that they could benefit from such things as efficient clean-burning coal, which had to be shipped from Pennsylvania. Previously people had heated only with wood. After the Chenango, trade increased between New York City, Albany and the Southern Tier. Merchants could market heavier items such as manufactured furniture and the coveted coal-burning stoves. With the canal&#39;s opening, living standards would generally improve.</p><br>
<p>The canal was also a source of local employment. It is believed that Phillip Armour, the millionaire meat packer from Madison County, had first worked as a mule driver walking the Chenango Canal. The countless miles must have built his legs and tenacity, for he eventually quit and walked across the United States. He went to work the gold fields of California. He gradually earned a fortune and ultimately became a shipping magnate- the system he probably learned from his experience on the Chenango. Another driver was Nuel Stever. He was a veteran canal boatman who in 1927, at the age of 76, spoke of his colorful memories living on a Chenango Canal packet boat. His interview was published in The Norwich Sun:</p><br>
<p>When I was five, I began driving canal boat teams on the towpath pulling the boats. Such work was common to boys of that age. I can remember driving a team hour after hour up the towpath for 20 miles when I was five. When I was tired, I’d rest part of my weight on the towrope; it seemed to rest me. My father was at the helm. But when I became 10, I took my turn at the helm and a younger brother drove the teams. Whole families lived on the canal boats. I was the oldest of 21 children. We’d go to Oswego to load lumber for Bartlett’s Mill in Binghamton. Hamilton was the highest point and where the canal froze up first in the fall. Often in the fall as many as 82 boats loaded with lumber would be tied up. When the freeze was just beginning, Bartlett would bring up several teams, hitch them to a bunch of stumps and drag through the canal to break the ice so boats could get lumber to his mill. Canalling was a varied business. For instance, we’d take a lot of firkins and get them filled along the way with butter for the merchants. We’d boat grain up to the big stills at Hamilton, Pecksport, Bouckville and Solsville and bring back loads of whiskey which the merchants sold or shipped away. We only did the boating. Whiskey then sold for 25 cents a gallon. It was a busy canal in those days. Three years before the canal closed, about 50 years ago (from 1927), 120 boats carried coal.</p><br>
<h2>Closing</h2><br>
<p>Opened in 1834, Chenango Canal was a necessary link in the interconnecting transportation system in New York, for which the need was well-recognized at that time. Canals had been employed successfully in England to enable the Industrial Revolution. The extraordinary success of the Bridgewater Canal in North West England, completed in 1761, began an era of canal building in that country. The USA, intent on its own development, would follow suit. However, the advent of the Chenango Canal, after having been tied up in the New York Legislature for 19 years, came late in the canal era. By the time of its construction, this type of canal and its technology was already becoming obsolete. The invention of the steam locomotive had already occurred in England in 1811, and the development of a railway system had begun in England by the mid-1820s. The success of those technologies and systems there would allow them to supplant the artificial water-route systems everywhere. The railroads were more durable, more flexible, more efficient, more cost-effective and most importantly- faster than the canals.</p><br>
<p>In 1848, the trains finally arrived in Binghamton in the form of the Erie Railroad. It is also noteworthy that the D&H began its existence as a canal company.</p><br>
<p>Despite its success in augmenting the economic development of the Southern Tier and Central New York, the Chenango Canal itself had never been a financial success. After years of competition and decline and continual financial loss, by a vote of the state legislature the Chenango Canal was closed in 1878– just four decades and four years after it was opened. The land and assets were broken up and gradually sold, mostly at auction. Some of the properties were sold to private interests, some were deeded to municipal areas and others were held by the state. Much of the channel was subsequently filled in, and frequently paved over, particularly within the cities and the more populated areas. But some of the more isolated stretches of the canal were simply closed and abandoned.</p><br>
<p>While most of the larger towns, and all of the state, benefited from the triumph of the railroads, many of the smaller villages and hamlets did not. For practically every small settlement that was located on the line of the canal, but which was missed by the railroad, when the canal departed prosperity went with it. Two good illustrations of this are the once-prospering villages of Port Crane and Pecksport, where very little of either one is left today.</p><br>
<p>After 1900, a surviving stretch of the then-closed canal gained notoriety owing to its use to transport contraband through the town of Hamilton. Tobacco, alcohol (during Prohibition), and marijuana were transported along the canal. In order to control this traffic, NY State officials decided to build a checkpoint along its route. Surprisingly, over five million dollars worth of illegal goods were confiscated, from 1900 until about 1930, in what would become one of the most famous water-borne transportation enforcements of that time. Remnants of the stockade which was built can still be seen in the back rooms of the buildings currently housing the "Barge Canal Coffee Co." at 37 Lebanon Street and also the associated stockade on the corner of Pine Street and W. Kendrick Avenue in Hamilton. The Pine Street building was later converted into an asylum.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>In many places the canal path became the roadbed for streets, and its path can be traced by the roads which replaced it. These include Binghamton&#39;s State Street and Chenango Street, NY Route 5, NY Route 8, NY Route 12 and NY Route 12B. In Utica the canal bed follows next to or underneath NY Route 12B/12, and entered the Erie Canal west of State Street. Portions of the old channel, stone aqueducts, locks, and other structures still remain in place along its route, and are visible in several locations. These include: between Bouckville and Solsville; near Hamilton, NY; north of North Fenton and west of County Road 32; north of Sherburne, west of NY Route 12B, and in the village of Oxford, both on Canal St and the remains of a harbor on North Washington. The only place left with moving water is an area between Woodman’s Pond, near the now extinct Pecksport and the aqueduct on Canal Road, just after Bouckville, which was the summit level on the canal. Most of these canal remnants as well as much of the original path are visible or discernible using Google Earth.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal bed continues to exist in Utica alongside the arterial for a half mile just east of the arterial and south of the Burrstone Road overpass. The waters of Nail Creek flow through this section of the canal. The stonework of a lock remains in good shape and can be seen here. The tow path, however, is currently overgrown with brush.</p><br>
<p>Chenango Canal Summit Level is a national historic district located in the vicinity of Bouckville in Madison County, New York, United States. The district contains three contributing structures. It is a five-mile segment of the Chenango Canal constructed between 1834 and 1836. The five mile summit portion is watered, owned and operated by the New York State Canal Corporation as part of the feeder system for the Erie (Barge) Canal about 30 miles north. The contributing structures are the canal prism and adjacent tow path, the remaining portions of the aqueduct that carried the Chenango over the Oriskany Creek, and a pair of stone bridge abutments. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.</p><br>
<p>Currently, the community in the Madison area is working to develop a trail along the original towpath. They hope to collect historical artifacts for public display and establish what is left of the Chenango Canal in that area as a Madison County park. The Chenango Canal Corridor Connections trail project is a major project with the vision to link various trails along the general canal and O&W rail corridors from Utica to Binghamton. Calling it the Chenango Connections Corridor, the area’s citizens are now working in conjunction with the NYS Office of Parks, Recreation, and Historic Preservation; the NYS Canal Corporation; and Parks & Trails New York staff, as part of the HTHP program, to shape a vision and implementation plan for the corridor that spans three counties and multiple villages and towns.</p><br>
<p>The Chenango Canal Prism and Lock 107 at Chenango Forks in Chenango County, New York was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2010.</p><br>
<p>The Federation of South Arabia  was an organization of states under British protection in what would become South Yemen. It was formed on 4 April 1962 from the 15 protected states of the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South. On 18 January 1963 it was merged with the Crown colony of Aden. In June 1964, the Upper Aulaqi Sultanate was added for a total of 17 states. A team was sent to the 1966 Commonwealth Games in Kingston, Jamaica. The Federation was abolished when it gained independence along with the Protectorate of South Arabia as the People&#39;s Democratic Republic of Yemen on 30 November 1967.</p><br>
<h2>States</h2><br>
<p>Aden</p><br>
<p>Alawi</p><br>
<p>Aqrabi</p><br>
<p>Audhali</p><br>
<p>Beihan</p><br>
<p>Dathina</p><br>
<p>Dhala</p><br>
<p>Fadhli</p><br>
<p>Haushabi</p><br>
<p>Lahej</p><br>
<p>Lower Aulaqi</p><br>
<p>Lower Yafa</p><br>
<p>Maflahi</p><br>
<p>Shaib</p><br>
<p>Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom</p><br>
<p>Upper Aulaqi Sultanate</p><br>
<p>Wahidi Balhaf</p><br>
<h2>Leaders</h2><br>
<h3>High Commissioners</h3><br>
<p>Sir Charles Hepburn Johnston (18 January 1963 – 17 July 1963)</p><br>
<p>Sir Gerald Kennedy Nicholas Trevaskis (17 July 1963 – 21 December 1964)</p><br>
<p>Sir Richard Gordon Turnbull (21 December 1964 – 22 May 1967)</p><br>
<p>Sir Humphrey Trevelyan (22 May 1967 – 30 November 1967)</p><br>
<h3>Chief Ministers</h3><br>
<p>Hassan Ali Bayumi (18 January 1963 – 24 June 1963)</p><br>
<p>Zayn Abdu Baharun (9 July 1963 – 23 January 1965)</p><br>
<p>Abdul-Qawi Hassan Makkawi (7 March 1965 – 25 September 1965)</p><br>
<p>Ali Musa al-Babakr (25 September 1965 – 30 August 1966)</p><br>
<p>Salih al-Awadli (30 August 1966 – 30 November 1967)</p><br>
<h2>Postage stamps</h2><br>
<p>The Federation issued its own Adeni postage stamps from 1963 to 1966. Most of its issues were part of the omnibus issues common to all the Commonwealth territories, but it did issue its own definitive stamps on 1 April 1965. The set of 14 included 10 values, from 5 to 75 fils, each depicting the arms of the Federation in a single colour, while the top four values (100 fils, 250 fils, 500 fils, and 1 dinar), featured the flag of the Federation.</p><br>
<p>The stamps referred to above are those listed in the Scott Standard Postage Stamp Catalog. A number of other stamps have also been issued and are listed in Stanley Gibbons and other widely used stamp catalogues. It is possible, or even likely, that some of the stamps of South Arabia were not issued primarily for postal use.</p><br>
<p>The Escalante River is a tributary of the Colorado River. It is formed by the confluence of Upper Valley and Birch Creeks near the town of Escalante in south-central Utah, and from there flows southeast for approximately 90 mi before joining Lake Powell. Its watershed includes the high forested slopes of the Aquarius Plateau, the east slope of the Kaiparowits Plateau and the high desert north of Lake Powell. It was the last river of its size to be discovered in the 48 contiguous U.S. states.</p><br>
<p>The average discharge is approximately 146 cfs (4.1 m³/s).</p><br>
<p>The river was first mapped and named by Almon Thompson, a member of the 1872 Colorado River expedition led by John Wesley Powell. It was named after Silvestre Vélez de Escalante, a Franciscan missionary and the first known European explorer of the region. In 1776, Escalante and his Spanish superior Francisco Atanasio Domínguez left from Santa Fe, New Mexico on an attempt to reach Monterey, California. During this journey, usually referred to as the Dominguez-Escalante Expedition, Escalante and his companions passed by the Grand Canyon and were the first white men to enter Utah.</p><br>
<p>Much of the Escalante River&#39;s course is through sinuous sandstone gorges. The river and the rugged canyons which drain into it form a key section of Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument. This spectacular region is a popular destination for hiking and backpacking.</p><br>
<p>For most of the year, the Escalante River is a small stream, easily stepped across or waded. During spring runoff and the summer monsoon, however, the river can become a raging, muddy torrent ten to one hundred times bigger. In some years, the river can be run using kayaks or canoes (rafts are too large), but this requires both good timing — water which is too high or too low can make travel impossible, stranding boaters — and the willingness to portage boats several hundred vertical feet at the end of the trip.</p><br>
<p>The River Kwai, more correctly Khwae Noi  or Khwae Sai Yok , is a river in western Thailand. It rises to the east of the Salween in the north-south spine of the Bilauktaung range near, but not over the border with Burma. It begins at the confluence of Ranti, Songkalia and Bikhli Rivers. At Kanchanaburi it merges with the Khwae Yai River to form the Mae Klong river, which empties into the Gulf of Thailand at Samut Songkhram.</p><br>
<p>The river is chiefly known for its association with the Pierre Boulle novel The Bridge over the River Kwai and David Leans film adaptation of the novel, The Bridge on the River Kwai, in which Australian, Dutch and British prisoners of war were forced by the Japanese to construct two parallel bridges spanning a river as part of the Burma Railway, also called the Railway of Death, for the many lives lost in its construction. One bridge was wooden and temporary. The other was made of concrete and steel and still exists. The bridges actually spanned the Mae Klong, but as the railway subsequently follows the Khwae Noi Valley, the bridges became famous under the wrong name. In the 1960s, the upper part of the Mae Klong was renamed the Khwae Yai (&#39;big tributary").</p><br>
<p>The river was also used in Michael Cimino&#39;s Academy Award winning film, The Deer Hunter. The prison camp and initial Russian roulette scene was filmed on the Kwai.</p><br>
<p>A military history of the building of the bridges during World War II can be found in Professor Peter Daviess biography of the British officer Philip Toosey, ""The Man Behind the Bridge: Colonel Toosey and the River Kwai". The book, and an associated BBC Timewatch documentary, challenge many of the inaccuracies portrayed in Boulles novel and Lean&#39;s film.</p><br>
<p>The Vajiralongkorn Dam (formerly named Khao Laem Dam) and Srinagarind Dams are hydroelectric dams on the river.</p><br>
<p>The Uinta Mountains are an east-west trending chain of mountains in northeastern Utah extending slightly into southern Wyoming in the United States. As a subrange of the Rocky Mountains, they are unusual for being the highest range in the contiguous United States running east to west, and lie approximately 100 mi east of Salt Lake City. The range has peaks ranging from 11,000 -, with the highest point being Kings Peak, also the highest point in Utah. The Mirror Lake Highway crosses the western half of the Uintas on its way to Wyoming.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Uinta Mountains are Laramide uplifted metasedimentary rocks deposited in an intracratonic basin in southwest Laurentia during the time of the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia. The marine and fluvial metasedimentary rocks in the core of the Uinta Mountains are of Neoproterozoic age (between about 700 million and 800 million years old) and consist primarily of quartzite, slate, and shale. These rocks comprise the Uinta Mountain Group, and reach thicknesses of 4 to 7.3 km. Most of the high peaks are outcrops of the Uinta Mountain Group. Many of the peaks are ringed with bands of cliffs, rising to form broad or flat tops. The mountains are bounded to the north and south by reverse faults that meet below the range, on the north by the North Flank fault and on the south by the Uinta Basin boundary fault.</p><br>
<p>The Uinta Mountain Group from oldest to youngest includes Uinta Mountain unidivided quartz arenite, overlain by the Moosehorn Lake, Mount Watson, Hades Peak, and Red Shale formations. The flanks of the east-west trending Uinta Mountains contain a sequence of Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata ranging from the Cambrian Lodore Formation to the Cretaceous Mancos Shale, all of which have been tilted during the uplift of the mountain range.</p><br>
<p>The uplift of the range dates to the Laramide orogeny, about 70 to 50 million years ago, when compressive forces produced high-angle reverse faults on both north and south sides of the present mountain range. The east-west orientation of the Uintas is anomalous compared to most of the ranges of the Rocky Mountains; it may relate to changing stress patterns and rotation of the Colorado Plateau.</p><br>
<p>The high Uintas were extensively glaciated during the last ice age, and most of the large stream valleys on both the north and south sides of the range held long valley glaciers. However, despite reaching to over 13,500 ft in elevation, the climate today is sufficiently dry that no glaciers survived even before the rapid current glacial retreat began in the middle nineteenth century. The Uintas are the most poleward mountain range in the world to reach over 4,000 m without modern glaciers, and are in fact the highest mountain range in the contiguous United States with no modern glaciers. Permafrost occurs at elevations above 10,000 ft and at times forms large rock glaciers.</p><br>
<p>In between the summits and ridgelines are wide, level basins, with some 500 small lakes. One of the most popular lakes is Mirror Lake because of its good fishing, scenic views, and easy road access.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<p>The south and east sides of the range are largely within the Colorado River watershed, including the Blacks Fork and the Duchesne River, which are tributaries of the Green River. The Green is the major tributary of the Colorado River and flows in a tight arc around the eastern side of the range. (Indeed, John Wesley Powell said the Green was the "master stream" where it and the Colorado came together.)</p><br>
<p>The Bear and Weber rivers, the two largest tributaries of Great Salt Lake, are born on the west slope of the range. The Provo River, the largest tributary to Utah Lake, begins on the southern side of the range and flows west to Utah Lake, which itself drains via the Jordan River into Great Salt Lake.</p><br>
<p>Large portions of the mountain range receive over 40 in of precipitation annually. The high Uintas are snowcapped most of the year except for late July through early September. The Uinta Mountains have more than 400 mi of streams and 1,000 lakes and ponds.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Uinta Mountains are part of the Wasatch and Uinta montane forests ecoregion. Nearly the entire range lies within Uinta-Wasatch-Cache National Forest (on the north and west) and Ashley National Forest (on the south and east). The highest peaks of the range are protected as part of the High Uintas Wilderness. The forests contain many species of trees, including lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, Douglas-fir, and quaking aspen. There are also many species of grasses, shrubs, and forbs growing in the Uinta Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Points of interest</h2><br>
<p>The Uintas is home to Camp Steiner, the highest Boy Scout camp in the United States at 10,400 ft. The camp is near mile marker 33 of the Mirror Lake Highway.</p><br>
<p>The Uinta Highline Trail traverses the entire range and is a popular backpacking trail.</p><br>
<p>Dinosaur National Monument is located on the southeast flank of the Uinta Mountains on the border between Colorado and Utah.</p><br>
<p>Bear Lake is a natural freshwater lake on the Utah-Idaho border in the Western United States. About 109 square miles in size, it is split about equally between the two states; its Utah portion comprises the second-largest natural freshwater lake in Utah, after Utah Lake. The lake has been called the "Caribbean of the Rockies" for its unique turquoise-blue color, which is due to the reflection of calcium carbonate  deposits suspended in the lake. Its water properties have led to the evolution of several unique species of fauna that occur only within the lake. Bear Lake is over 250,000 years old. It was formed by fault subsidence that continues today, slowly deepening the lake along the eastern side.</p><br>
<p>Originally named "Black Bear Lake" by Donald Mackenzie, an explorer for the North West Fur Company who discovered the lake in 1819, the name was later changed to Bear Lake. The lake is a popular destination for tourists and sports enthusiasts, and the surrounding valley has gained a reputation for having high-quality raspberries.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first known inhabitants of the Bear Lake Valley were Shoshone tribes, but the area was known to many Native Americans. The first record of whites seeing the lake is from 1818 when French-Canadian trappers working for the North West Company followed the Bear River upstream to the valley.</p><br>
<p>The south end of the lake, in the area of modern-day Laketown, was the location of a rendezvous in the summer of 1827 and 1828. Mountain men, including Jedediah Smith and Jim Bridger, gathered at this location, along with trade goods suppliers, and American Indians from several different tribes. The mountain men and Indians sold their furs in exchange for various store goods and supplies, and several weeks were spent reveling in assorted amusements and liquor.</p><br>
<p>Smith&#39;s arrival in June 1827 was especially historic, as it marked the completion of the first ever overland round-trip to California from the United States. As he wrote in his journal: "My arrival caused a considerable bustle in camp for myself and party had been given up as lost."</p><br>
<p>Although the lake lies relatively near the Oregon Trail, which runs north and east of the lake, and was traveled by many pioneers between 1836 and the 1850s, it seems none of them went south enough to view the lake. It wasnt until 1863 that Mormon pioneers led by Charles C. Rich settled in the Bear Lake Valley, but they made an agreement with Native Americans which left most of the Utah portion of the valley in Indian possession. The Mormons gradually moved south and established the villages of Garden City, Pickelville, and Laketown, each along the lakes shore.</p><br>
<p>In later years, Bear Lake became a resort and recreation area, with many developers selling lake shore and mountain view lots. The beaches of Lakota and Ideal were given to private development in the 1970s, including the Blue Water and Sweetwater developments. The State of Utah bought the far southeast beach for use as a State Park, and the state also operates a marina on the lake&#39;s west side.</p><br>
<p>Environmental concerns have arisen with the ongoing development of the area. The lake is diked on the Idaho side and downstream Bear River water users use it as a reservoir.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>Formed in a half graben valley straddling the Idaho-Utah border, the lake has an approximate area of 109 square miles (282 km²) and sits at an elevation of 5,924 ft along the northeast side of the Wasatch Range and the east side of the Bear River Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The lake and surrounding areas are a popular summer tourist destination. The lake has many marinas, beaches, and two tourist towns in Utah: Garden City and Laketown. It also has two state parks, each named Bear Lake State Park: one in Idaho, one in Utah. The Utah state park includes one-half-mile long Rendezvous Beach at the south end of the lake, location of the 1827 and 1828 Rocky Mountain Rendezvous, and 3 mile long Cisco Beach on the east side, plus additional campground, marina, and boat ramp areas. The Idaho state park includes a north and an east unit, each with a mile-long beach. Bear Lake National Wildlife Refuge extends up from the north end of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Bear Lake has a high rate of endemism (native species not naturally found anywhere else). Several species evolved in the lake&#39;s waters, but after the diversion of the Bear River into the lake, many of these have gone extinct. Bonneville cisco, Bonneville whitefish, Bear Lake whitefish, and Bear Lake sculpin. There have been attempts to transplant these species to other areas without success, with the exception of the Bear Lake Cutthroat Trout strain. This trout has flourished in other large bodies of cool water, including Strawberry Reservoir and Scofield Reservoir.</p><br>
<p>"The Bonneville cisco eat only small aquatic invertebrates or zooplankton. They are eaten by larger fish in the lake including whitefish, Bonneville Cutthroat Trout, and introduced lake trout,". Although several fish species have been introduced into the lake, native species have continued to thrive due to careful management.</p><br>
<p>Water from the lake is used for irrigation in the nearby Bear Valley in southeast Idaho, and for recreational fishing. The lake drains via the Bear River Outlet, completed in 1915 into the Bear River which eventually flows into the northeast portion of Great Salt Lake</p><br>
<p>Many residents of northern Utah, southern Idaho, and western Wyoming come to Bear Lake for summer vacations due to its proximity and abundance of recreational activities.</p><br>
<h3>Raspberry Days festival</h3><br>
<p>Bear Lake has become famous for the surrounding valley&#39;s crops of raspberries and for the annual Raspberry Days festival held in Garden City to celebrate the harvest of raspberries, generally during the first week of August. This event is said to bring thousands of people from all over the world and features rodeos, parades, fireworks, dances, a craft fair, "Miss Berry Princess contest", raspberry recipe cookoff, a talent show, fun run and concerts.</p><br>
<p>The original Bear Lake Raspberry plants were wiped out by a virus during 2001 and less than 5 acres survived. Some acreages were replaced by virus resistant plants and although some varieties of raspberries are resilient to the virus, none can produce fruit as succulent and sweet as the traditional plants. This epidemic resulted in most of the large berry business in Garden City being wiped out. The raspberry business has since been redeveloped and the world-famous raspberries thriving in the valley. Fresh berries are available in season (Usually the last two weeks of July through the first two weeks of August) and products are available through local retailers, statewide retailers and online for national distribution.</p><br>
<p>Tirich Mir   is the highest mountain of the Hindu Kush range, and the highest mountain in the world outside of the Himalayas-Karakoram range, located in Chitral District of Pakistan. The mountain was first climbed on the 21st July 1950 by a Norwegian expedition consisting of Arne Næss, P. Kvernberg, H. Berg, and Tony Streather. Tirich Mir overlooks Chitral town, and can be easily seen from the main bazaar.</p><br>
<p>The last village in Chitral before reaching Tirich Mir is the village of Tirich. It is located in Mulkow. The people there speak the Khowar language. The residents are available for hire as porters and tourist guides and will lead trekkers part way up the mountain, but there is a point beyond which they will not go.</p><br>
<p>It is believed the origin of the name Tirich Mir is "King of Tirich" as Tirich is the name of a side valley of the Mulkhow valley of Chitral which leads up to Tirich Mir. An alternative etymology derives this name from the Wakhi language. In Wakhi, trich means shadow or darkness and mir means king, so Tirich Mir means king of darkness. It could have gotten this name as it creates long shadows on the Wakhan side of its face.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The weather station 4245m above sea level lies in the Tundra climate/Alpine climate(ET) zone according to Koppen Climate Classification. On this specific altitude(4245m asl) we find moderately cold winters and cool summers generally above freezing. Annual mean temperature is -5.25c, which puts the station well inside the range of continuous permafrost. The average temperature in the coldest month of January is -17.5c and the two hottest months of July and August have mean temperatures of 6.5c. Average low temperatures range from -23c in January to 0c in July and August.</p><br>
<p>On higher elevations near the summit however, one can find the Ice cap climate which is marked by no month having an daily mean temperature of above freezing. Here ice and snow never really melt and average daily temperatures range from around -35c in winter to -15c in summer.</p><br>
<p>Tyana or Tyanna  was an ancient city in the Anatolian region of Cappadocia, in modern Kemerhisar, Niğde Province, Central Anatolia, Turkey. It was the capital of a Luwian-speaking Neo-Hittite kingdom in the 1st millennium BC.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Tyana is the city referred to in Hittite archives as Tuwanuwa. During the Hittite Empire period in mid 2nd millennium, Tuwanuwa was among the principal settlements of the region along with Hupisna, Landa, Sahasara, Huwassana and Kuniyawannni. This south-central Anatolian region was referred to as the Lower Land in Hittite sources and its population was mainly Luwian speakers. Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Tuwanuwa/Tuwana was a major city of the independent Neo-Hittite kingdoms. It is not certain whether or not it was initially subject to the Tabal kingdom to its north, but certainly by the late 8th century BC it was an independent kingdom under a ruler named Warpalawa (in Assyrian sources Urballa). He figures in several hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions found in the region, including a monumental rock carving in Ivriz. Warpalawa is also mentioned in Assyrian texts, under the name Urballa, first in a list of tributees of Assyrian king Tiglath Pileser III and later in a letter of Sargon II. Warpalawa was probably succeeded by his son Muwaharani whose name appears in another monument found in Niğde.</p><br>
<h3>Greek and Roman periods</h3><br>
<p>In Greek legend, the city was first called Thoana because Thoas, a Thracian king, was its founder (Arrian, Periplus Ponti Euxini, vi); it was in Cappadocia, at the foot of the Taurus Mountains and near the Cilician Gates (Strabo, XII, 537; XIII, 587).</p><br>
<p>Xenophon mentions it in his book Anabasis, under the name of Dana, as a large and prosperous city. The surrounding plain was known after it as Tyanitis.</p><br>
<p>It is the reputed birthplace of the celebrated philosopher (and reputed saint, god, or magician) Apollonius of Tyana in the first century AD. Ovid (Metamorphoses VIII) places the tale of Baucis and Philemon in the vicinity.</p><br>
<p>According to Strabo the city was known also as "Eusebeia at the Taurus". Under Roman Emperor Caracalla, the city became Antoniana colonia Tyana. After having sided with Queen Zenobia of Palmyra, it was captured by Aurelian in 272, who would not allow his soldiers to sack it, allegedly because Apollonius appeared to him, pleading for its safety.</p><br>
<h3>Late Roman and Byzantine periods</h3><br>
<p>In 372, Emperor Valens split the province of Cappadocia in two, and Tyana became the capital and metropolis of Cappadocia Secunda. In Late Antiquity, the city was also known as Christoupolis (Χριστούπολις, "city of Christ").</p><br>
<p>Following the Muslim conquests and the establishment of the frontier between the Byzantine Empire and the Caliphate along the Taurus Mountains, Tyana became important as a military base due to its strategic position on the road to Cilicia and Syria via the Cilician Gates, which lie some 30 km to the south. Consequently, the city was frequently targeted by Muslim raids. The city was first sacked by the Umayyads after a long siege in 708, and remained deserted for some time before being rebuilt. It was then occupied by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid in 806. Harun began converting the city into a military base and even erected a mosque there, but evacuated it after the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros I bought a peace.</p><br>
<p>The city was again taken and razed by the Abbasids under Al-Abbas ibn al-Mamun in 831. Abbas rebuilt the site three years later as an Abbasid military colony in preparation for Caliph al-Mamuns planned conquest of Byzantium, but after Mamuns sudden death in August 833 the campaign was abandoned by his successor al-Mutasim and the half-rebuilt city was razed again.</p><br>
<p>The city fell into decline after 933, as the Arab threat receded. The ruins of Tyana are at modern Kemerhisar, three miles south of Niğde; there are remains of a Roman aqueduct and of cave cemeteries and sepulchral grottoes.</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<p>As noted, in 372 Emperor Valens created the province of Cappadocia Secunda, of which Tyana became the metropolis. This aroused a violent controversy between Anthimus, Bishop of Tyana, and St. Basil of Caesarea, each of whom wished to have as many suffragan sees as possible. About 640 Tyana had three, and it was the same in the tenth century (Heinrich Gelzer, "Ungedruckte... Texte der Notitiae episcopatum", 538, 554).</p><br>
<p>Le Quien (Oriens christianus, I, 395-402) mentions 28 bishops of Tyana, among whom were:</p><br>
<p>Eutychius, at Nice in 325</p><br>
<p>Anthimus, the rival of St. Basil</p><br>
<p>Aetherius, at Constantinople in 381</p><br>
<p>Theodore, the friend of St. John Chrysostom</p><br>
<p>Eutherius, the partisan of Nestorius, deposed and exiled in 431</p><br>
<p>Cyriacus, a Severian Monophysite.</p><br>
<p>In May 1359, Tyana still had a metropolitan (Mikelosich and Müller, "Acta patriarchatus Constantinopolitani", I, 505); in 1360 the metropolitan of Caesarea secured the administration of it (op. cit., 537). Thenceforth the see was titular.</p><br>
<p>Mount Adams, elevation 5,793 ft above sea level, is a mountain in New Hampshire, the second highest peak in the Northeast United States after its nearby neighbor, Mt. Washington. Located in the northern Presidential Range, Mount Adams was named after John Adams, the second president of the United States. It was given this name on July 31, 1820. To the northeast is Mount Madison and to the southwest is Mount Jefferson. From the summit, Mount Washington can be seen directly to the south.</p><br>
<p>There are two major subsidiary peaks of Mt. Adams: Mount Sam Adams and Mount Quincy Adams, named after John Adams cousin, Revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, and son, President John Quincy Adams, respectively, and two minor sub-peaks, Abigail Adams (named for John Adams wife Abigail) and Adams 5. The northern side of the mountain ridge is located in Low and Burbanks Grant, and the end of Durand Ridge, and King Ravine, on the north side of Mount Adams are in the town of Randolph (formerly Durand). The entire south side of the mountain ridge is in Thompson and Meserves Purchase.</p><br>
<p>The Appalachian Trail traverses the col between Mount Adams and Mount Sam Adams on the Gulfside Trail. The Randolph Mountain Club (RMC) maintains the trails and several huts and shelters high on Mount Adams&#39; north side, including "The Perch", "Crag Camp", "The Log Cabin", and "Gray Knob". A large network of hiking and climbing paths lead south to the huts and ridges from several parking areas located on USA Highway 2.</p><br>
<p>The Aetherius Society claims that Mount Adams is one of 19 "holy mountains" around the world.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing and recreation</h2><br>
<p>Mount Adams is a popular hiking and climbing destination for experienced and novice mountaineers alike. The mountain is climbed in all four seasons, although it is more often climbed from late spring through early fall. The peak is known to have dangerously erratic weather, especially in winter. There is a prominent sign just prior to the most exposed section of Mount Adams urging hikers to turn around at the first sign of inclement weather.</p><br>
<p>Winter hiking anywhere in the White Mountains requires specialized equipment and skills, as severe storms can develop suddenly. High winds and low temperatures can combine to make winter conditions on Mount Adams approximately equal to the worst reported from Antarctica.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous direct routes to the summit of Mount Adams. All routes are considered either Class 1 or Class 2, involve about 4 mi to 5 mi each way, and gain approximately 4,500 ft in elevation.</p><br>
<p>One popular route on Adams year-round is the Valley Way, which connects with the Gulfside Trail and Lowe&#39;s Path. The Air Line is considered the standard winter route on Mount Adams, as it is perhaps the most direct route to the summit. The route gains about 4,500 ft in elevation over about 4.3 mi from trailhead to summit. The last 1,000 feet of this route are extremely exposed, leaving mountaineers vulnerable to the storms known to frequent mountains in the Presidential Range.</p><br>
<p>Due to their relative proximity, Mount Adams and nearby Mount Madison are frequently climbed on the same day by mountaineers. A hike to both summits includes a round trip of about 10.4 mi and cumulative elevation gain of more than 5,000 ft. The route begins on the Valley Way, which brings hikers to the Madison Hut. From the Madison Hut, hikers can then access the summits of both Mount Madison and Mount Adams.</p><br>
<p>Squaw&#39;s Tit is an outlier of Mount Charles Stewart in the Canadian Rockies of Alberta. It is located at Lat/Lon: 51.13°N, 115.33°W and is one of the most prominent landmarks in the vicinity of Canmore, Alberta.</p><br>
<p>"Squaws Tit" is an unofficial name for the high point of a ridge that lies southwest of the Mount Charles Stewart summit and northwest of Mount Lady Macdonald near Canmore. The peak owes its name to the resemblance it shares with a womans upturned breast. Due to its politically incorrect name, it is unlikely to receive official status, but is in common use.</p><br>
<p>Belonging to the Fairholme Range in Kananaskis Provincial Park, Squaw&#39;s Tit is located 4,000 ft above the Bow River valley. It is 2 km northwest of Lady Macdonald, just east of the Banff National Park gates.</p><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>The scrambling route is graded moderate but includes exposure and thus is strongly recommended that the ascent only be done in dry conditions. Follow the major drainage ditch behind Harvey Heights and stay close along the right (south) side of the ditch. Follow this up to the North West ridge all the way to the slabs just below the protruding summit nipple.</p><br>
<p>Lolo Pass, elevation 5,233 ft, is a mountain pass in the western United States, in the Bitterroot Range of the northern Rocky Mountains. It is on the border between the states of Montana and Idaho, approximately 40 mi west-southwest of Missoula, Montana.</p><br>
<p>The pass is the highest point of the historic Lolo Trail, between the Bitterroot Valley in Montana and the Weippe Prairie in Idaho. The trail, known as naptnišaqs, or "Nez Perce Trail" in Salish, was used by Nez Perce in the 18th century, and by the Lewis and Clark Expedition, guided by Old Toby of the Shoshone, on their westward snowbound journey in September 1805. After a winter at Fort Clatsop in present-day northwestern Oregon, the Corps of Discovery returned the following June. The Lolo Trail is a National Historic Landmark, designated for its importance to the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and its role in the 1877 Nez Perce War.</p><br>
<p>The name of the pass is sometimes said to have been Salish version of the French name Laurence or Laurent, but was probably a regular French nickname. The name Lolo was not used by Lewis and Clark. Its first known mention is in the 1810 journal of David Thompson, who described three fur trappers, probably of French descent, named Michael, Lolo, and Gregoire.</p><br>
<p>The pass was also used in 1877 during the Nez Perce War as some of the Nez Perce under Chief Joseph tried to escape the USA Army. Shortly after crossing the pass, the two sides clashed at the Battle of the Big Hole in Montana.</p><br>
<p>USA Highway 12, belatedly completed in 1962, crosses the pass. At the August dedication ceremony at Lolo Pass attended by thousands, the states&#39; governors, Bob Smylie of Idaho and Tim Babcock of Montana, cut through a ceremonial cedar log with a two-man crosscut saw.</p><br>
<p>Lolo Hot Springs is 7 mi east of the pass in Montana. The first limited services in Idaho are in Powell, 13 mi to the west of the pass, then another 65 mi to Lowell, at the confluence of the Lochsa and Selway Rivers to form the Middle Fork of the Clearwater. The primary city in Idaho served by USA 12 is Lewiston, 170 mi west of the pass at the border with Washington, where the Clearwater meets the Snake.</p><br>
<p>On March 1, 2014, the Idaho Department of Fish and Game announced that 23 wolves had been killed in the Lolo Pass area, in order to boost elk populations.</p><br>
<p>Winter Road Montana.jpgEntering Montana from Lolo Pass</p><br>
<p>Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in Northeast India and is famous for the phumdis  floating over it. The lake is located near Moirang in Manipur state, India. The etymology of Loktak is Lok="stream" and tak="the end". The largest of all the phumdis covers an area of 40 km&sup2; and is situated on the southeastern shore of the lake. Located on this phumdi, Keibul Lamjao National Park is the only floating national park in the world. The park is the last natural refuge of the endangered Sangai , Rucervus eldii eldii or Manipur brown-antlered deer , one of three subspecies of Eld&#39;s deer.</p><br>
<p>This ancient lake plays an important role in the economy of Manipur. It serves as a source of water for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply. The lake is also a source of livelihood for the rural fishermen who live in the surrounding areas and on phumdis, also known as “phumshongs”. Human activity has led to severe pressure on the lake ecosystem. 55 rural and urban hamlets around the lake have a population of about 100,000 people.</p><br>
<p>Considering the ecological status and its biodiversity values, the lake was initially designated as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention on 23 March 1990. It was also listed under the Montreux Record on 16 June 1993, "a record of Ramsar sites where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur".</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Topography</h3><br>
<p>Of the two river systems which drain the Manipur state&mdash;the Barak River and the Manipur River&mdash;the Manipur River flows through the Manipur Valley. The river rises in the north at Karong, flows south of Imphal and hence is also known as the Imphal River. Along its course through the valley downstream of Imphal, the bed slope of the river is gentle. The Drainage pattern is sub-dendritic, sub-parallel and sub-radial, dictated by the structure and lithology of the area. Imphal, Iril and Thoubal River valleys also exhibit a meandering river course.</p><br>
<p>At the Ithai barrage outlet of the Lake, the direct catchment area draining into the lake is 980 km&sup2; out of which 430 km&sup2; is under paddy cultivation, 150 km&sup2; under habitation and 400 km&sup2; under forest cover. The area of the lake is 236.21 km&sup2, comprising large pockets of open water and marshy land formed at the southern part of the Imphal valley up to the confluence of Manipur River and Khuga River in the district of Imphal West. The Lake is divided into two zones, namely, the “Core Zone” which is the no-development zone or totally protected zone comprising 70.3 km&sup2; and the balance area is called the "Buffer Zone".</p><br>
<p>Within the lake and on its periphery, there are 14 hills of varying size and elevation; in the southern part of the lake are the Sendra, Ithing and Thanga islands.</p><br>
<p>Geographically, in terms of biodiversity and pressure of human activities, the lake is broadly divided into northern, central and southern zones as elaborated below.</p><br>
<p>The Northern Zone, extending from eastern side of Nambol River near Ngaikhong Khunou to Phabakchao including Maibam Phumlak, has five main streams/rivers namely the Manipur river, Nambul, Yangoi river, Nambol river and Thongjaorok flowing into the lake. The zone is separated from the central zone by large phumdis (varying thickness of 0.4 to 4.5 m) that stretches from the northwest to the southeast. During January to March, phumdis in this area are usually burnt for construction of fish cum paddy farms; many large fish farms with raised levees have been built.</p><br>
<p>The Central Zone, extending from Awang Laisoi pat (western side of Nambol River near Ngaikhong Khullen) to Laphu pat (between Khordak channel and Imphal River) encloses prominent islands of Thanga, Karang and Ithing. It has some sub zone viz Laisoi, Awangsoi, Yennapat, Tharopat etc. It is the main open water zone of the lake, which was relatively free from phumdis in the past, but over the years athaphums (artificially created phumdis for fishing) constructed by villagers for fishing have proliferated choking the entire lake. The State Fisheries Department has established a fisheries centre within this zone at Takmu pat for fisheries development</p><br>
<p>The Southern Zone encompasses the Keibul Lamjao National Park, Ungamel and Kumbi pats at the southern part of the lake and the zone is linked with Khuga River by the Ungamel channel. The Imphal River is also linked with this zone by the Khordak channel. The western catchment drained by the Kangshoibi River flows into this zone. Proliferation of phumdis has been observed near the mouth of Ungamel channel, Kumbi pat, Nongmaikhong and Khordak area.</p><br>
<h3>Geology</h3><br>
<p>Cretaceous limestone, the Disang with Serpentinites (Lower to Middle Eocene&ndash;Upper Cretaceous), the Surmas and the Tipams (Miocene) are the dominant rock formations in the catchment of the Manipur basin. Higher reaches of hills have the Disang and Tipam groups of rocks while Surma group occurs in the lower reaches. Grey sandstone&ndash;grit&ndash;conglomerate&ndash;limestone sequences intruded by serpentinites containing minor amounts of enstalite, chromite, amphiboles and magnetite constitute the Disang formation. Argillaceous and arneceous sequence represents the Surma and Tipam groups, respectively.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>With an average annual rainfall of 1,183 mm tropical monsoon climate prevails in the valley. Temperatures range from 0 to 35 °C (32 to 95 °F). February and March are the driest months.</p><br>
<h3>Hydrology</h3><br>
<p>Loktak Lake is fed by the Manipur river and several tributaries and ‘Ungamel Channel’ (Ithai Barrage) is its only outlet now. The origin of the Manipur river system and its tributaries, which flows in a north-south direction and drains into the lake is from the hill ranges immediately to the west of the lake. The five major rivers with indirect catchment area of 7,157 km&sup2; are the Imphal (also called the Manipur River), the Iril, the Thoubal, the Sekmai and the Khuga. The other major streams which drain into the lake and which bring in lot of silt are the Nambul, the Nambol, the Thongjarok, the Awang Khujairok, the Awang Kharok, the Ningthoukhong, the Potsangbam, the Oinam, the Keinou and the Irulok. The Lake, located on the southern side of the Manipur river basin, is at the lowest elevation in the valley and no other major river flows into the lake, except a few rivulets.</p><br>
<p>Though hydrological data on river basin has not been adequately monitored, the Department of Earth Science, Manipur University has in its report of 1996 assessed the average runoff of Manipur River as 519,200 ha·m (4,209,000 acre·ft; 5.192 km) from a total catchment area of 697 km&sup2; at the Ithai barrage. The ground water potential has been assessed estimated around 44 hm3 per annum.</p><br>
<h2>Water resources development</h2><br>
<p>Several water resources development projects have been built in the Manipur River basin to meet growing demands for irrigation. Seven river valley projects have been completed; these are the Singda Dam Project, Thoubal Dam Project and Khuga Dam Project which are of multipurpose type, the Imphal Barrage Project and the Sekmai Barrage Project&mdash;both medium irrigation projects. The most discussed project is the Loktak Multipurpose Project, which provides hydropower, irrigation and water supply benefits but has attracted adverse criticism for the drastic alteration caused by the project to the hydrological regime of the Loktak Lake and associated wetlands.</p><br>
<h2>Loktak Multipurpose Project</h2><br>
<p>The Loktak Hydropower Project on the Manipur River or Imphal River, with the Loktak Lake forming the head waters to provide regulated storage for power generation, was built in 1983 as a multipurpose project with power generation of 105 MW (3x35 MW) for power supply to Manipur, Nagaland, Assam, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Tripura, and lift irrigation to an area of 23,000 hectare in the Manipur valley. The main components of the project, as built, are, a) the Ithai barrage, across the Manipur river of 10.7 m height and 58.8 m length with three spillway bays, b) water conductor system for trans-basin diversion comprising an open channel of 2.323 km length, a cut and cover section of 1.077 km length (bed width 18 m, followed by a Head Race Tunnel of 3.81 m diameter (horseshoe type) and 6.62 km long to carry a discharge of 58.8 m3/s (42 m3/s) for power generation and 16.8 m3/s for irrigation), c) a surge shaft, d) penstocks and e) a surface powerhouse and a tailrace channel on the right bank of the narrow Leimatak River with three units of 35 MW capacity each generating an annual energy of 448 GW·h (1.613 PJ). The downstream Loktak Power Project in cascade to utilize the regulated releases from the upper project for further power generation of 90 MW is proposed to be taken up for joint implementation by NHPC and the Government of Manipur.</p><br>
<p>The project has invited severe criticism since the water level in the lake at the Ithai barrage is maintained throughout the year at FRL 786.5 m from considerations of power generation from the well planned water conductor system. The problem in the lake is, however, diverse; economic activities in and around the lake, and encroachments by 50,400 fishermen for extensive fishing activity are also cited to be some reasons. Other reasons for the distress situation in the lake are a) jhum (shifting) cultivation, b) extensive deforestation and unscientific land use practices in the catchment areas which bring large amount of silt into the lake and c) undefined ownership of the lake where the stakeholders are the districts of Imphal west district, Bishnupur and Thoubal causing lack of integrated approach to the lakes potential for providing benefits.</p><br>
<h2>Biodiversity</h2><br>
<p>A rich biodiversity with habitat heterogeneity has been recorded during a scientific survey carried out between January 2000 and December 2002 in different habitat patches of the lake. The lake’s rich biological diversity comprises 233 species of aquatic macrophytes of emergent, submergent, free-floating and rooted floating leaf types. But in the declining trend of vegetation, the important flora recorded are as under.</p><br>
<p>The important vegetation of the phumdis recorded are Eichhornia crassipes, Phragmites karka, Oryza sativa, Zizania latifolia, Cynodon spp., Limnophila spp., Sagittaria spp., Saccharum latifolium, Erianthus pucerus, Erianthus ravennae, Leersia hexandra, Carex spp. Phragmites karka is reported to be the dominant species.</p><br>
<p>In the habitat patch with rooted floating plants, vegetation comprises the a) Nelumbo nucifera, b) Trapa natans, c) Euryale ferox, d) Nymphaea alba, e) N. nouchali, N. stellata and f) Nymphoides indica.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>57 species of waterbirds and another 14 species of wetland associated birds have been noted in the lake including 28 species of migratory waterfowl (most migrating from different parts of the northern hemisphere beyond the Himalayas). Also recorded were 425 species of animals—249 vertebrates and 176 invertebrates). The list includes rare animals such as the Indian python, sambhar and barking deer. Keibul Lamjao National Park is the natural habitat of one of the most endangered deer, the brow-antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi) which was once thought to be extinct, which was declared a national park only to preserve and conserve this species of Eld&#39;s deer.</p><br>
<p>But the avifauna recorded in different habitats of the lake is reported to be declining. Briefly, the details of the avifauna recorded now are elaborated.</p><br>
<p>In the central part of the lake waterfowl, including dabbling ducks and diving ducks are reported but their numbers are declining due to proliferation of phumdis.</p><br>
<p>In the habitat part of the rooted plants, Hydrophasianus chirurgus, Metopidius indicus, and others were reported; once abundant now show a declining trend.</p><br>
<p>Small hillocks (though showing degraded condition) in the lake show big trees; birds of prey such as Milvus migrans lineatus and Circus aeruginosus have been recorded on these trees.</p><br>
<p>Species of hornbills found are the brown-backed hornbill, rufous-necked hornbill, wreathed hornbill, the pied hornbill and the great pied hornbill.</p><br>
<p>Fish yield from the lake is reported to be about 1,500 tonnes (6,600,000 lb) every year. The State Fishery Department has introduced millions of fingerlings of Indian and exotic major carps. Natural capture fishery without the requirement of any lease or licence was also in vogue in the lake. The lake fishery is now a mixture of capture and culture systems. Nine mini-hatcheries opened by the State Government has the capacity to produce one million fish fingerlings in a day. Fifty percent of the fingerlings produced were released into the Loktak Lake and the balance were distributed to beneficiary fishing committees. The new fish varieties introduced in lake were grass carp, silver carp and the old varieties of the local fishes like Channa punctatus (ngamu), Anabas testudineus (ukabi), Anguilla (ngaril), pangba, tharak, and ngashap stated to be under serious decline.</p><br>
<p>Fauna recorded in the precincts of the Lake in the Keibul Lamjo National Park are the Indian python, sambar, barking deer, the endangered sangai species of Elds deer, wild bear, Muntiacus muntjak, rhesus monkey, hoolock gibbon, stump-tailed macaque, Indian civet Viverra zibetha, marbled cat and Temmincks golden cat.</p><br>
<h2>Threats</h2><br>
<p>The Loktak lake and its precincts have faced serious problems due to loss of vegetal cover in the catchment area and construction of Ithai barrage at the outlet of the lake for multipurpose development of water resources. The issues are further elaborated below.</p><br>
<p>The degradation of the catchment area has occurred. Deforestation and shifting cultivation in the catchment areas have accelerated the process of soil erosion resulting in the lake’s shrinkage due to siltation. The annual silt flow into the lake is estimated to be 336,325 tons.</p><br>
<p>The nutrients from catchment area and domestic sewage from Imphal city carried by Nambul River are discharged into the lake affecting its water quality, thus encouraging the growth of water hyacinth and phumdis. All these activities have direct bearing on ecological stability of the lake. Interference in navigation and overall aesthetic value of the Lake are other reported adverse effects.</p><br>
<p>The construction of Ithai barrage and maintaining constant water level at full reservoir level (FRL) has led to a) changes in hydrological regime thereby affecting ecological processes and functions of the wetland, b) inundation of agricultural lands and displacement of people from flooded lands and c) loss of fish population and diversity.</p><br>
<p>Recent analysis of the concentrations of some elements with FAO limits showed non detection of toxic elements like As, Cd, Hg, and Pb. To a certain extent the water of the lake can be considered fresh in terms of trace elemental pollutants.</p><br>
<p>The thickness of phumdis has decreased in the Keibul Lamjao National Park thereby threatening the survival of sangai deer and interference in the migration of fishes from the Chindwin&ndash;Irrawaddy River system of Myanmar resulting in changes in the species composition.</p><br>
<p>The population of a number of economic plants such as Saccharum species, Setaria pumila, Alpinia nigra, Hedychium spicatum and the major food plants like the Zizania, Latifolia, Carex species, Coix species, Narenga has decreased resulting in starvation conditions for the endangered sangai deer. With the phumdis becoming thinner, the hoofs of the limbs of sangai get stuck in the marsh and results in their drowning. Production of the edible fruit and rhizome (thamchet and thambou) of lotus plants has decreased to a great extent. Plants have also degraded due to polluted water.</p><br>
<p>Livelihood of people dependent on the sale of edible fruit and rhizome of lotus plant products and Euryale ferox (thanging) has suffered due to steep decline in the growth of these plant species.</p><br>
<p>Today, Loktak Lake is at the highest level of eutrophication and the only brow-antlered deer is at the verge of extinction.</p><br>
<h2>Loktak Development Authority</h2><br>
<p>To address all the issues raised on the health of the lake, as detailed above, Government of Manipur has set up the Loktak Development Authority (LDA) under “The Manipur Loktak Lake (Protection) Act, 2006 (Manipur Act 3 of 2006)” with the objective "to provide for administration, control, protection, improvement, conservation and development of the natural environment of the Loktak Lake and for matters connected with as incidental thereto."</p><br>
<h2>Restoration actions</h2><br>
<p>In order to address the various issues plaguing the functioning of the lake and the project dependent on it, a detailed project study was instituted by the Loktak Development Authority (LDA) & Wetlands International Asia (WISA) with funding provided by the India Canada Environment Facility (ICEF). A Project Report titled "Sustainable Development & Water Resources Management of Loktak Lake (SDWRML)" has been prepared. The report gives a review of its activities on the project done for over six years (from February 1, 1998 till the end of March 2004) with the following pertinent observations.</p><br>
<p>In an interdependent multiple socioeconomic cum historical cum technological/scientific milieu, the problem of the Loktak lake is multi-dimensional and complex.</p><br>
<p>The project had not made the desired impact on livelihood activities of the target communities.</p><br>
<p>The scientific data system and analysis was critical for planning appropriate interventions.</p><br>
<p>In the past, complex environmental problems were not adequately addressed.</p><br>
<p>LDA, basically an engineering organization, addressed several developmental activities with due involvement of local communities and its capacity to address the situation is well organized.</p><br>
<p>Even though the Ithai barrage and its operation by NHPC have contributed to the deterioration of the lake environment and the surrounding people, the mind set of the people (conditioned by the water level and submergence) that operation of the project needs drastic change to solve the lakes&#39; problems had prevented examination of feasible alternate solutions, given the situation that drastic change of NHPC approach to operate the project was not feasible.</p><br>
<p>The project design was sound but focus on ultimate goal was not adequate. Participation of NGOs in the project was not sufficient. The design of a fish hatchery (a Chinese design) was too large and had to be scaled down. Documentation, communication activities of the project and MIS system were good.</p><br>
<p>Based on all the analysis, the future approach suggested involves mitigation measures as elaborated are: i) The Nambol River carries sewage of nutrients of Imphal town into the lake which results in prolific growth of phumdis and deteriorates water quality. This is an urban problem and there is urgent need to treat and control this aspect, even if it is expensive</p><br>
<p>ii) Reduce soil erosion and sedimentation of the lake by enlarging the scope of micro-watersheds in the catchment area treatment plan</p><br>
<p>iii) Construct a channel through the Keibul Lamjao National Park to enable phumdis to settle at the bed of the lake</p><br>
<p>iv) Resolve the encroachment problem, by demarcating the lake boundary, which would result in a targeted and concerted action plan</p><br>
<p>v) Implement action plans that are economically viable and technically feasible resulting in livelihood enhancement such as evolving an attractive resettlement plan for the phumdi dwellers backed by remunerative livelihood program; and</p><br>
<p>vi) Examine introduction of fishing net instead of Athapum (Athapam means phumdis in circular shape floating in the lake, planted or cultured artificially for catching fish) practiced presently to be dismantled. In November 2016, Environment ministry has taken keen interest in preserving loktak lake and has formed a panel of five members for this purpose.</p><br>
<h2>Visitor Information</h2><br>
<p>Well connected by road and air, Imphal, the capital city of Manipur is 39 km away from the lake, by road. The lake is a unique destination for tourism. The lake offers excellent opportunities for visitors to enjoy the beauty of the lake and its several islands located inside it that are studded with floating phumdis of different geometrical shapes.</p><br>
<p>The Sendra Tourist Home on the island with an attached Cafeteria in the middle of the lake is an ideal tourist spot. Visitors get a bird&#39;s eye view of life on the lake&mdash;small islands that are actually floating weed on which the lake people live.</p><br>
<p>Phubala resort, on the Phubala, is 40 km from Imphal.</p><br>
<p>At Moirang town on the fringe of the Loktak is the Indian National Army (INA) Museum which will be of interest to tourists. The exhibits include letters, photographs, badges of ranks and other articles associated with the INA. A bronze statue of Netaji Subash Chandra Bose in uniform stands in the lawn.</p><br>
<p>Allegheny Cemetery is one of the largest and oldest burial grounds in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.</p><br>
<p>It is a nonsectarian, wooded hillside park located at 4734 Butler Street in the Lawrenceville neighborhood and bounded by the Bloomfield, Garfield, and Stanton Heights areas. It is sited on the north-facing slope of hills above the Allegheny River.</p><br>
<p>In 1973 the cemetery&#39;s Butler Street Gatehouse was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and in 1980 the entire cemetery was listed on the National Register.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Incorporated in 1844, the Allegheny Cemetery is the sixth oldest rural cemetery in America and has expanded over the years to now encompass 300 acres.</p><br>
<p>Allegheny Cemetery memorializes more than 124,000 people. Some of the oldest graves are of soldiers who fought in the French and Indian War, which were moved here from their original burial site at Pittsburgh&#39;s Trinity Cathedral downtown. Many notables from the city of Pittsburgh are buried here. The cemetery was amongst those profiled in the PBS documentary A Cemetery Special.</p><br>
<p>In 1834 three members of the Third Presbyterian Church of Pittsburgh, Dr. J. Ramsey Speer, Stephen Colwell and John Chislett, Sr. tried to establish a rural cemetery near Pittsburgh. Dr. Speer later visited several famous rural cemeteries, Mount Auburn Cemetery on Boston, Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, and Green-Wood Cemetery in New York. In 1842 the 100 acre farm of Colonel Bayard was selected for the site. An Act of Incorporation passed the Pennsylvania Legislature and was signed by Gov. David R. Porter on April 24, 1844.</p><br>
<p>"Mt. Barney" was selected as the site of a memorial to naval heroes in 1848 and Commodore Joshua Barney and Lt. James L. Parker were reinterred there. Another memorial was erected on Memorial Day, 1937 to the memory of over 7,000 servicemen buried in the cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Notable interments</h2><br>
<p>Marcus E. Baldwin (1863–1929), Major League Baseball Player</p><br>
<p>Joseph Baker (1806–1862), mayor of Pittsburgh (1850–1851)</p><br>
<p>Joshua Barney (1759–1818), Commodore in the United States Navy and American Revolutionary War veteran</p><br>
<p>Richard Biddle (1796–1847), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Lem Billings (1916-1981), friend and campaigner for John F. Kennedy</p><br>
<p>Marcus Peter Blakemore (1889–1959), founder Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity, Inc.</p><br>
<p>Francis B. Brewer (1820–1892), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Don Brockett (1930–1995), motion picture and television actor, "Chef Brockett" on the PBS series Mister Rogers&#39; Neighborhood</p><br>
<p>James W. Brown (1844–1909), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Eben Byers (1880–1932), wealthy American industrialist and socialite noted for his gruesome death caused by consumption of the radioactive patent medicine Radithor.</p><br>
<p>John Caldwell, Jr. (1827–1902), George Westinghouse partner and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Louis Semple Clarke (1867–1957), automotive pioneer, founder of the Autocar Company and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>James Wallace Conant (1862–1906), manager of the Schenley Park Casino and Duquesne Gardens and founder of the Western Pennsylvania Hockey League.</p><br>
<p>Beano Cook (1931–2012), college football commentator</p><br>
<p>John Dalzell (1845–1927), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Cornelius Darragh (1809–1854), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Ebenezer Denny (1761–1822), first mayor of Pittsburgh, American Revolutionary War veteran</p><br>
<p>Harmar Denny (1794–1852), USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>Harmar D. Denny, Jr. (1886–1966), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>William J. Diehl (1845–1929), Pittsburgh Mayor</p><br>
<p>Harry Allison Estep (1884–1968), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>John Baptiste Ford (1811–1903), industrialist, founder of PPG Industries and Ford City, Pennsylvania</p><br>
<p>Walter Forward (1786–1852), United States Secretary of the Treasury</p><br>
<p>Stephen Foster (1826–1864), songwriter</p><br>
<p>Josh Gibson (1911–1947), baseball great of the Negro Leagues</p><br>
<p>Gus Greenlee (1893–1952), Major League Baseball Team Owner</p><br>
<p>Moses Hampton (1803–1878), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>General Alexander Hays (1819–1864)</p><br>
<p>William B. Hays (1844–1912), Pittsburgh mayor</p><br>
<p>Joseph Horne (1826–1891), founder of Pittsburgh department store Horne&#39;s the chain of stores closed in 1994</p><br>
<p>Thomas Marshall Howe (1808–1877), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Alfred E. Hunt (1855–1899), co-founder of the company that became Alcoa</p><br>
<p>Thomas Irwin (1785–1870), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>William Wallace Irwin (1803–1856), US Congressman, Pittsburgh Mayor</p><br>
<p>William Freame Johnston (1808–1872), Governor of Pennsylvania</p><br>
<p>Samuel Kier (1813–1874), pioneer oil refiner</p><br>
<p>Andrew W. Loomis (1797–1873), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>F. T. F. Lovejoy (1854–1932), Industrialist, associate of Andrew Carnegie</p><br>
<p>William McClelland (1842–1892), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Charles McClure (1804–1846), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>James McCord (1822–1894), millionaire owner of the oldest hattery west of the Allegheny Mountains and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Henry Sellers McKee (1843–1924), millionaire glass manufacturer, founder of Jeannette, Pennsylvania and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Robert McKnight (1820–1885), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>William McNair (1880–1948), Pittsburgh mayor</p><br>
<p>Thomas Mellon (1813–1908), founder of Mellon Bank</p><br>
<p>Alexander Pollock Moore (1867–1930), publisher of the Pittsburgh Leader and ambassador who was married to actress Lillian Russell</p><br>
<p>James Kennedy Moorhead (1806–1884), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Philip H. Morgan (1825-1900), lawyer, jurist, diplomat</p><br>
<p>General James S. Negley (1826–1901), Civil War general and USA Congressman</p><br>
<p>General John Neville (1731–1803), American Revolutionary War veteran</p><br>
<p>George Tener Oliver (1848–1919), publisher of the Pittsburgh Gazette Times and Chronicle Telegraph, US Senator</p><br>
<p>Alfred L. Pearson (1838–1903), United States Army officer</p><br>
<p>Henry Kirke Porter (1840–1921), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>James Hay Reed (1853–1927), founding partner, Knox & Reed (now Reed Smith LLP), and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>John Buchanan Robinson (1846–1933), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Calbraith Perry Rodgers (1879–1912), aviation pioneer</p><br>
<p>James Ross (1762–1847), US Senator</p><br>
<p>Archibald H. Rowand, Jr. (1845–1913), Civil War Congressional Medal of Honor Recipient</p><br>
<p>Lillian Russell (1861–1922), singer, actress</p><br>
<p>Ted Sadowski (1936–1993), Major League Baseball Player</p><br>
<p>Richard Mellon Scaife (1932–2014), billionaire supporter of conservative causes, publisher of the Pittsburgh Tribune-Review</p><br>
<p>George Shiras, Jr. (1832–1924), United States Supreme Court Associate Justice</p><br>
<p>Jane Swisshelm (1815–1884), journalist, abolitionist, and women&#39;s rights advocate</p><br>
<p>Adamson Tannehill (1750–1820), US Congressman</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Thaw (1859–1933), Pittsburgh financier and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Harry Kendall Thaw, (1871–1947), murderer of architect Stanford White, husband of Evelyn Nesbit</p><br>
<p>Stanley Turrentine (1934–2000), jazz musician</p><br>
<p>Calvin Wells (1827–1909), industrialist, financier and member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club</p><br>
<p>Thomas Williams (1806–1872), Civil War congressman, prosecutor in the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson.</p><br>
<p>The unidentified remains of 54 victims of the 1862 Allegheny Arsenal explosion.</p><br>
<p>The Exploits River is a Canadian river in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It flows through the Exploits Valley in the central part of Newfoundland.</p><br>
<p>The 246 km river is the longest river on the island draining an area of 1,100 km² and is the second longest in the province after the Churchill River.</p><br>
<p>The river drains Red Indian Lake at its starting point and discharges into the Bay of Exploits near the port town of Botwood.</p><br>
<p>The Exploits River provides habitat for spawning Atlantic Salmon and other species of fish. The salmon population increased dramatically when fish ladders were installed, opening up sections of the river that had been previously inaccessible.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Lloyds River</p><br>
<p>Victoria River</p><br>
<p>Buchans River</p><br>
<p>Drużno  is a body of water historically considered a lake in northern Poland on the east side of the Vistula delta, near the city of Elbląg. As it is currently not deep enough to qualify as a lake hydrologically and receives some periodic inflow of sea water from the Vistula Lagoon along the Elbląg River, some suggest that it be termed an estuary reservoir. A village of recent origin also called Drużno is situated near the lake.</p><br>
<p>The German name Draussensee, in earlier records called Drusensee, is connected to the ancient trade city of Truso, which stood within the lands now occupied by Elbląg. The lake is greatly reduced from its original size partly due to large building expansion of housing in the last few decades, but mainly because of the natural death of the lake by sedimentation. The lake is the site of a nature reserve, one of the 13 sites in Poland protected under the Ramsar convention.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The central coordinates of the lake are 54&deg;4&prime;N latitude, 19&deg;27&prime;E longitude. It lies to the east of the Nogat, the main right branch of the lower Vistula, at the edge of the lowland of the delta (Żuławy Wiślane), which is a region of shifting sediments and channels partly controlled by dikes, dams and ditches. The lake is about 181 km&sup2; in area and sometimes up to 1.8 m below sea level. The delta ends at Elbląg upland (Wysoczyzna Elbląska), much of which is wooded. The delta itself is sparsely populated, despite the presence of large cities nearby (Gdańsk, Elblag and others). Most of it is rich agricultural land and the rest is a wildlife habitat of great natural beauty.</p><br>
<p>The lake today is a 13 to 29 square kilometers. body of water with a mean depth of about 1.2 m and a maximum depth of 3 m. The lake is drained by the Elbląg River. There is only a 0.1 m difference in altitude between the lake and Elbląska Bay, which projects from Vistula Lagoon. The surface altitude of these bodies varies for a few reasons, such as wind. When there is a strong wind blowing to the south the bay can be a meter or so higher than the lake, which causes back currents in the river.</p><br>
<p>The Prussians called Vistula Lagoon by the name "fresh-water bay", which it was in those days. Since then the greatly diminished egress of Vistula water, due to human uses, has</p><br>
<p>brought Baltic water into the bay, now brackish. As a result, back currents in the river bring intrusions of brackish water into the lake. Generally the southern end remains fresh. There probably always were reversals of river current, which must have speeded traffic between Frisches Haff and the lake.</p><br>
<p>The lake is surrounded by and includes marsh, swamp and alder thickets. On its surface are floating Nymphaea, submerged are Potamogeton and the marshes feature tracts of Phragmites. It should have sedimented over long ago but the high throughput of water from various sources brings fresh Oxygen into the lake, retarding its aging.</p><br>
<p>Twelve streams empty into the lake radially, with water from another twelve canals being pumped into it. They bring about 6.9 m3/s into the lake (1970) with about 7 draining through the river (1975). Variability in these figures as well as wind and back currents cause expansion and contraction of the lake over wide areas. The total capacity is about 22.4 e6m3 with a catchment area of 1,084 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h2>Historical uses of the lake</h2><br>
<p>The lake is valuable currently mainly as a nature preserve. Some 20,000 migratory waterfowl use it, chiefly Anser, Anas, Grus and Chlidonias.</p><br>
<p>In ancient times the lake was deeper and of wider extent. In the troubled Viking Age and the conflicts and acts of piracy between the various tribes of the Balts and voyagers from Scandinavia and elsewhere, the lake would have been an ideal masked route for shallow-draft vessels, such as the Viking ships. When the lake became useless for that purpose Elblag was still a port with access to the Zalew Wislany and through there to the Gulf of Danzig. It rose to prominence as that. The remains of Truso may be one of the archaeological sites in the area, or it may be under Elblag, or may have been obliterated by construction.</p><br>
<p>In an attempt to make the inland region more accessible, the Prussian government opened the Elbląg Canal through the lake in 1860. The northern terminus of the canal route to the south is Elbląg. It runs through a dredged channel in the lake and becomes an overland canal to the south; that is, the canal is composed of sections connected by tracks for lifting and lowering vessels. It joins a number of lakes to the south, but they are not drained by the canal. During its life the canal was used mainly to haul timber to the coast. After destruction in World War II the canal was restored in 1948 but finds little commercial use now. Instead the entire route has been converted into a recreational area featuring nature preserves such as Lake Druzno.</p><br>
<h2>Prehistory of the lake</h2><br>
<h3>Janow Pomorski site</h3><br>
<p>Janow Pomorski is a village about 7 km to the southeast of Elbląg where the traces of some workshops have been found that were on the then edge of the lake. A large abundance of finished and partly finished artifacts in antler and amber have been found. They were manufactured in structures of about 5 x, and long houses about 6 x above ground, three rooms, made of wood, believed to be residences also. A cache of wrecked boats has been found. The artifacts are similar to both Slavic and Scandinavian equivalents. Some archaeologists suggest that this may be the site of Truso; however, the name may have referred to a collection of settlements.</p><br>
<p>The settlement is dated from the late 8th century to the early 10th by pottery. Trenches nearby have uncovered two layers of peat sandwiching a layer of peat and sand over a thick layer of silt. The layers have been dated by a variety of methods. The history of the lake is roughly reconstructed as follows:</p><br>
<p>Originally Ebląska Bay extended into the region of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Extension of the Vistula Delta closed off the lake from the bay at about 2000 BP.</p><br>
<p>A rise in sea level brought the lake and the bay together again.</p><br>
<p>A second advance of the delta created the current configuration by 1000 BP except that the lake was larger and deeper. It has been filling in and growing over since then.</p><br>
<p>The lake in this view is seen as a transitory phenomenon created by accidents of topography and the growth of the Vistula Delta. The combined lake and bay might have served as a natural border in antiquity but whether it was one remains to be demonstrated. Truso must have been settled between the 2000 BP and 1000 BP lake maxima. Truso might well have been at Janów Pomorski, but the artifacts give no indication that the native populations were Prussian, Slavic or Scandinavian.</p><br>
<p>It is true that in 1237 the entire right bank of the lower Vistula was occupied by Old Prussians and that Truso was in or projected into the Old Prussian dukedom of Pomesania. Moreover, Adalbert of Prague had been beheaded further north-east at the coast of the Baltic Sea near Rybaki (Fischhausen) for cutting down the sacred groves of the Old Prussians as part of an effort to convert them (997 AD). This circumstantial evidence is not conclusive about the ethnicity of the founders of Truso.</p><br>
<p>In 1237 also the Teutonic Order opened hostilities against the Old Prussians, putting down a castle at the future Elbing. The order&#39;s modus operandi was to sack and burn an Old Prussian town and then hold it against reoccupation with a stone keep nearby, around which a new town of Germanic or mixed ethnicity would grow. There is no evidence yet that they practiced that method on Truso, although the question is still open. According to the Museum at Elbląg, Truso was burned down by pirates or robbers two centuries before. Its relationship to the order at Elbing remains unknown.</p><br>
<h3>Ptolemy and the prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Ptolemy, writing in the period of the initial lake, refers to the entire Gulf of Gdańsk as Venedicus Bay and states that the Greater Venedae occupied its coast. The name is known also among the Slavic Wends, but he may have meant by "Greater" that Balts were to be included; if not, one would have to ask where the historical Balts came from. There were some historical Vends later in Latvia, who may have been their descendants.</p><br>
<p>Ptolemy does mention the Prussians by name (Borusci), but also the Gythones appear at the mouth of the Vistula. These can be interpreted as Goths or the early settlements of Gdańsk might have been there under that name. There is no explicit mention of a town of Danzig and he does not give his usual list of river towns for the Vistula and eastward. Truso was at a location where already in the Roman Empire and before the (only) people who collected and traded amber shipped it south on the Amber Road to Carnuntium and further. In Old Prussian history it is known, that Northmen, Danes came to Prussia and intermarried. A number of swords along the Nemunas river, attest to their presence.</p><br>
<h3>Wulfstan and the prehistory</h3><br>
<p>Wulfstan of Hedeby left an account of a voyage dated to about 880 AD as told to Alfred the Great and inserted into his translation of Orosius&#39; Histories. It is the first mention of the lake in history and also briefly describes the Prussians of the times, which he calls "Aesti".Aisti- Aesti (meaning easterners) was the name used for Baltic Prussian in records starting 800 years earlier.</p><br>
<p>Wulfstan sailed from Hedeby (Haithabu), Jutland to Truso in seven days keeping Weonodland ("Wendland") on the right as far as the mouth of the Weissel (Vistula). These Venedi are on the opposite bank of the Vistula from the Greater Venedi of Ptolemy. By mouth of the Vistula Wulfstan explains that he means the passage between Frisches Haff and the Bay of Danzig.</p><br>
<p>The Ilfing River runs east of the Weisel from a lake on the banks of which stands Truso into the Estmere (Eastern Sea-Ostsee), where it is incorporated into the Weissel; i.e., Wulfstan sees the Ilfing as a tributary of the Weissel and Estmere as the lower Weissel.</p><br>
<p>Weonodland extends as far as the Weissel, after which Witland, the westernmost part of Eastland, begins. It is generally agreed that Wulfstan is interpreting the source of Tacitus&#39; Aestii as Eastland. The Estonians ultimately inherited the name, but in Wulfstan it has to mean at least the Prussians, perhaps further.</p><br>
<p>This passage tells us that the topography was more or less modern. The lake is not named, but it is considered a lake drained by the Ilfing River. Being east of the Weissel, Truso, the lake and the river must be in Witland, but Wulfstan does not say that. He describes the Estonians (Balts) as being a rich and populous nation divided into towns, each of which was ruled by a king. The passage does not pinpoint Truso as being in Weonodland or Eastland and does not say if they are Estonians.</p><br>
<h2>Languages of the ethnic populations</h2><br>
<p>By Ptolemy&#39;s time the Proto-Balto-Slavic language had divided into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic, perhaps even into dialects. As the greater Venedi and the Weonods cannot have spoken the same language the name must once have applied to both Balts and Slavs (unless Ptolemy was wrong).</p><br>
<p>Each were on a different bank of the Vistula, Ptolemy&#39;s border between Greater Germany and European Sarmatia. On the left bank Ptolemy lists only peoples he considers Germans. There is no sign of any Venedi, Pomeranians or Kashubians. The Ruticli live in Pomerania with the Lugii to the south of them. Some Gotini (Goths) and Aelvaeones (Elbingers?, local name is to this day Albinger) dwell on the lower Vistula.</p><br>
<p>On the right bank are the Gythones. It would not be surprising to find Goths there too, but if the Gythones are Danzigers, they must have extended to Vistula Spit. East of them were the Venedae, south of whom were the Galindae (one of the Prussian tribes). The Venedae therefore must have been the coastal Estonians of Wulfstan, Western Baltic ancestral speakers.</p><br>
<p>By Wulfstan&#39;s time the East Germanic tribes had abandoned the left bank of the Vistula. Some may have remained in and around the Vistula Delta, especially Danzig, possibly Truso. The Slavs had expanded north into Pomerania. Proto-Slavic began to differentiate after the Slavs expanded beyond their Carpathian homeland in the 6th century AD, too late for the foundation of Truso.</p><br>
<p>From the fact that the name of Charlemagne (742-814 AD), which became the Slavic word for king, entered Proto-Slavic, and other indicators used by historical linguists, it has been deduced that Old Church Slavonic is in fact Proto-Slavic. By 1000 AD it was showing traces of influence by regional dialects. By that time the Slavs had been on the Baltic coast for some time; i.e., Wulfstans Weonods were speakers of Proto-Slavic. They were probably there before Charlemagne, but he encouraged them to settle along the Baltic. Adalberts Danzig was not only Christian but very recently under Slavic control, if not to some degree Slavic speaking.</p><br>
<p>After Adalbert events moved rapidly to produce great changes. Pomerania as a governable territory appeared in the 10th century; by the 11th the initial state of Poland had formed and was contending with the Dukes of Pomerania for control. It was probably at this time that Lekhitic developed and moved rapidly to Polish, Pomeranian, Kashubian and Slovincian. Eastern Pomerania was the Duchy of Pomerelia, which spit into others including Kashubian-speaking areas west of Gdańsk. Kashubian is distinguished by a large number of Low German loans.</p><br>
<p>On the right bank of the Vistula the Proto-Baltic speakers had been gradually giving ground to the Proto-Slavs in the east and lost Pomerania to Germanic expansion. They divided into West and East Baltic in the middle of the 1st millennium. The Goths achieved domination over the West Balts for a time and then were gone. After 1000 Old Prussian Galindian and Sudovian existed. In East Baltic Lithuanian and Latvian were distinct. Between east and west was Curonian. This was the ethnic distribution when the Teutonic Order received Prussia from the Emperor Frederick II and from the pope. The papal bull also granted them the government of all the Balts, as well as the Finnic Estonians, with consequences that continue today.</p><br>
<p>The Slavs had been moving in on the Old Prussians but had been stopped by them. The different duchies made hypocritical claims to lands they never controlled and invited the Teutonic Order to suppress "rebellions" there. It is possible therefore that the Kashubian Duchy of Gdańsk was asserting a nominal claim over Lake Drużno and Truso, but it was never one recognized by the Old Prussians.</p><br>
<h2>The name</h2><br>
<p>The name of the settlement has been restored in Old Prussian by prominent worldwide acknowledged Balticists, on the basis of Wulfstan&#39;s German (t/d), as *Drūsā - cf. Druso first by Georg Gerullis (Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen, Berlin 1922, 187), and recently - by Vytautas Maziulis (Prūsu kalbos etimologijos zodynas I, Vilnius 1988, 231). The ending -o corresponds to Common Prussian nominative singular -o (long), well attested in known Old Prussian Written Monuments (so-called "Elbing Vocabulary"). The diphthong au in German Drausen points to the same long *-(Dr)ū-, regularly diphthongized in later Prussian. No problem persists for modern Prussologists as concerns Truso. Such a restoration shows the continuity of Western Baltic on this territory in course of several hundred years, probably even before the attested Truso, which is the first known settlement name in the coastal region. The possible originating cultures are not diminished by this restoration, but the linguistic evidence points to the presence of Balts on this territory.</p><br>
<p>In one theory the name is Slavic in origin: "(Z)Drużno" means "together" in Slavic languages. It might have been named from being a place of gathering and resting for the caravan traders of various nationalities. (This is a complete nonsensical uttering). However the name Drużno is nothing else as a later polonizing of the original Baltic name.</p><br>
<p>On the other hand, the historical linguist Julius Pokorny, whose conjectures are strongly outdated at least in the field of the Baltic linguistics, lists, "reed", as an Indo-European root, not used in English, but appearing in Old Church Slavonic and Lithuanian words from a Balto-Slavic form *trusom.</p><br>
<p>If the place was named from the reeds, which are still there, it probably acquired the name Trusom during the growth of the second lake, evolving into the Old Prussian reconstruction from which came the Germanic Drusen, High German Drausen. Such a derivation still does not pinpoint the language spoken by the settlers. However this view does not correspond to conclusions of the main Balticists.</p><br>
<p>In 1897 and in the 1920s excavations near Gut Hansdorf brought a number of archaeological finds to light and it was assumed that it was Truso. These artifacts were kept at the Elbing Museum. War years and the take-over by communists stopped further research. Recently excavations near Gut Hansdorf (now Janowo) were resumed by Polish authorities and the site of 20 hectare unearthed.</p><br>
<p>The Hornisgrinde, 1,164 m , is the highest mountain in the Northern Black Forest of Germany. The Hornisgrinde lies in northern Ortenaukreis district.</p><br>
<h2>Origin of the name</h2><br>
<p>The name is probably derived from Latin, and essentially translates to "boggy head," referring to the raised bog (Hochmoor). Another interpretation of the name is derived from the terms Horn, miss and grind and meant the same as kahler Bergrücken ("bald ridge"), which carries a moorland on its height.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The summit of the Hornisgrinde is framed of the Muhrkopf (1003 m) near Unterstmatt in the north and the Mummelsee (1036 m) in the south. In the west the slope is cut through by the Schwarzwaldhochstraße (B 500) in approximately 900 to 1000 m, in the east drops the tendency steeply to the ice-age cirque Biberkessel with the landing Blindsee lake. The summit changes to the Katzenkopf mountain in the southwest at 1123 m, into the southeast drops the burr toward Seibelseckle. The Katzenkopf mountain and the southeast burr of the Hornisgrinde form the cirque of the Mummelsee.</p><br>
<h3>Grinden and raised bogs</h3><br>
<p>The Grinden - treeless wet heathlands on the highest areas, were created following forest clearance and the subsequent use of the land as grazing in the 15th century. By contrast the raised bog, up to five metres thick, in the southeastern area of the summit plateau is naturally treeless. It is reckoned to be at least 6,000 years old.</p><br>
<p>Parts of the plateau with the raised bog and the Karwand to the Biberkessel were designated as the Hornisgrinde-Biberkessel Nature Reserve (Naturschutzgebiet Hornisgrinde–Biberkessel, 95 ha.) in 1992.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>The Hornisgrinde belongs to the precipitation-richest places in Germany. The average yearly precipitation amounts to 1931 mm. Over 99% of the measuring points of the German weather service indicate lower values. The driest month is February; at most it rains in June. There&#39;s 1.4 times more precipitation in the precipitation-richest month than in the driest one. The seasonal precipitation fluctuations lie in the upper third. In over 81% of all places the monthly precipitation varies less.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Dreifürstenstein</h3><br>
<p>The Dreifürstenstein is a sandstone plate, which is located at the southeast edge of the plateau. It originates from the year 1722 and marked the border between the Margraviate of Baden, the duchy Württemberg and the Diocese of Strasbourg. Today the point represents the boundary border between Badens municipalities Sasbach, Seebach and Württembergs municipality Baiersbronn. With a height of 1,151 m above sea level the Dreifürstenstein is the highest point of Württemberg.</p><br>
<h3>Military use</h3><br>
<p>In 1938 the entire southern range of the summit level was declared as the military restricted area. First being in use since 1942 by the German Forces as an air defense position, the French took over the location in 1945. These operated on the Hornisgrinde an observing station on behalf of the French foreign secret service DGSE. Later the location was used parallel also by the Bundeswehr and NATO. After the plant went out of operation in 1994, it lay fallow several years. The restricted area was released in 1997. In 1999 the neighbor municipalities took over the federal area. Some of the buildings and masts are preserved, however they&#39;re purging more and more.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The long-distance footpath, the West Way runs across the ridge, and the Black Forest High Road runs over the western and southern sides of the mountain, with a large car park at the Mummelsee. From there an educational path with information boards by the Ruhestein nature conservation centre leads across the summit plateau, crossing the raised bog on a board walk.</p><br>
<h3>Observation tower</h3><br>
<p>At the southern end, above the Mummelsee, stands the 23-metre-high Hornisgrinde Tower. The construction of this observation tower in 1910 was an initiative by the Black Forest Club branch in Baden. New red sandstone was used as the building material. Together with the Mummelsee, the tower was one of the most popular destinations in the region at that time. In 1942 it was commandeered by the Luftwaffe. After World War II it was used by the French military. In 2000 the Seebach forestry association acquired the tower from the Federation and transferred it to the municipality of Seebach as a lease. On 29 May 2005 the tower was opened again to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Signal tower</h3><br>
<p>At the highest point of the mountain, in the midst of the summit level is a further tower, the 7 meters high signal tower established around 1840. In 1892 it was converted by assembly of stairs at the exterior into an observation tower. However, it was inaccessible during the military use of the summit. In 2000 the tower (also called Bismarck tower) was reorganized and made again accessible by a steel spiral stair lying outside.</p><br>
<h2>Winter sports</h2><br>
<h3>Alpine</h3><br>
<p>There is no lift system to the top of the Hornisgrinde itself. However, north of the summit is the Skizirkus Unterstmatt, with two lifts at the north slope of the Muhrkopf. To the south is the nearby ski lift of Seibelseckle.</p><br>
<h3>Cross-country skiing</h3><br>
<p>Around the summit of the Hornisgrinde leads a 14 km long loipe consisting of the Mummelseeloipe (6 km), Hundsrückenloipe (4.5 km) and the Ochsenstall-Seibelseckle loipe (3.5 km). It is prepared for classical and skating technology. Entrance possibilities are at the Mummelsee, at the col Seibelseckle and at the col Unterstmatt.</p><br>
<h2>Technical plants</h2><br>
<p>Due to the high average wind speed of 5.2 m/s in the annual average on the Hornisgrinde in the mid-1990s a commercial wind park was established. In 1994 two wind-power plants of 110 KW each one were built in private initiative, a third one with 132 KW followed in 1996. Like on other places there are controversial discusses the exposed location.</p><br>
<p>Also on top of the Hornisgrinde is a 206 m (676 ft) high radio tower of the Südwestrundfunk, transmitting radio and television programmes. The tower is not open to the public.</p><br>
<p>At the northern end of the summit plateau is a transmitting tower of the German Telekom AG. It accommodates a relay station for amateur television. Until 2005 also the program of the Deutschlandfunk was radiated by this tower, later the transmitter was shifted to the higher and thus far handing SWR tower. Also this tower is not accessible for the public.</p><br>
<p>The Tennessee Theatre is a 1920s-era movie palace, located in downtown Knoxville, Tennessee at 604 South Gay Street.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Clay Brown Atkin (1864-1931) founded many buildings and was claimed to be the biggest mantel manufacturer in the world. Atkin set his attention on a tall building, originally known as the Knoxville Banking & Trust Building, a 10-story steel frame building on the corner of Gay Street and Clinch Avenue. The building was completed in 1908, and for four years it was Knoxvilles tallest and first "skyscraper". The Knoxville Banking & Trust Building became a prestigious address for Knoxville professionals, and in 1917, Atkin bought the "skyscraper" and honorarily named it after his wife, Mary Burwell (1871-1949). Measuring at 166 ft in height, it was Knoxvilles tallest building until 1912. In the 1790s, the lot now occupied by the Burwell Building was home to a two-story log structure where the classes of Blount College &mdash; the forerunner of the University of Tennessee &mdash; were first held.</p><br>
<p>The theater first opened on October 1, 1928, and with nearly 2,000 seats in the auditorium, it was billed as "Knoxville&#39;s Grand Entertainment Palace". The theater was designed by Chicago architects Graven & Mayger in the Spanish-Moorish style, although the design incorporates elements from all parts of the world: Czechoslovakian crystals in the French-style chandeliers, Italian terrazzo flooring in the Grand Lobby, and Oriental influences in the carpet and drapery patterns. It was built by George A. Fuller, another Chicago native, who also built the famous Flatiron Building in New York City. Tennessee Enterprises hired the George A. Fuller Company because of his prominent works in New York City, and his work on the Tennessee proved Fuller to be a great fit for the job. By this point, the theatre was turning out to be an almost all-Chicago project, and Fuller broke ground on November 1, 1927. On Christmas Day the News-Sentinel reported that the theatre was pouring concrete. The theatre was one of the first public buildings in Knoxville to have air conditioning, and it also featured the beautiful Wurlitzer Organ.</p><br>
<p>During its heyday, the theatre played host to a few world movie premieres, including So This is Love (1953), and the adaptation of James Agee&#39;s All the Way Home (1963).</p><br>
<p>After a refurbishment in 1966, the theatre&#39;s seating capacity was reduced to 1,545.</p><br>
<p>The theater changed owners several times over its life, and eventually closed for the first time in 1977. Thereafter it was open and closed intermittently for the remainder of the late 1970s. It was purchased by local radio company Dick Broadcasting in 1981, who started a renovation effort to prepare it for the 1982 World&#39;s Fair. On April 1, 1982, the theater was placed in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Portions of the 1999 film October Sky were filmed in and around Knoxville, and the facade of the theater can be seen during a scene in which the main characters go to the movies.</p><br>
<p>The theater is home to the Knoxville Opera, and the Knoxville Symphony Orchestra.</p><br>
<h2>The Mighty Wurlitzer</h2><br>
<p>The Wurlitzer was installed in the Tennessee Theatre at the time of its opening in 1928. It was built by the Rudolph Wurlitzer Company in North Tonawanda, New York, and cost about $50,000 at the time.</p><br>
<p>The organist at the Tennessee is always advertised as the star of the show, and the first organist was Miss Jean Wilson, whose name appeared on the marquee alongside early films.</p><br>
<p>In October 2000, virtually the entire organ was shipped to Reno, Nevada, to master organ rebuilder Ken Crome, who painstakingly restored the instrument piece by piece. Artisans and craftsmen returned the organ&#39;s appearance to its original 1928 color scheme and design. The chambers on either side of the stage, which houses the pipes, were replastered to fully ensure the protection and preservation of the restored instrument.</p><br>
<p>The Wurlitzer returned to Knoxville in August 2001 and was re-installed over the course of the next month. Acclaimed theatre organist Lyn Larsen was involved in the configuration and tonal regulation of the organ, and was the first to publicly perform it at a gala concert on October 1, 2001.</p><br>
<h2>Renovation and restoration</h2><br>
<p>The Historic Tennessee Theatre Foundation (HTTF) was formed in 1996 and Dick Broadcasting donated the theater to the non-profit. It was designated "The Official State Theatre of Tennessee". In 2001, the Foundation announced a campaign to completely restore and renovate the Theatre. The $29.3 million project was funded through public and private donations with the help of $6.3 million in tax credits. The theatre closed for renovations in June 2003 to completely restore it to its original glamor.</p><br>
<p>Renovations included expansions of the stage depth via a cantilever two stories above State street, which accommodated larger and more elaborate productions, a custom orchestra shell to enhance the acoustics of the new larger stage, an enlarged orchestra pit, upgraded dressing room facilities, modernization of the lighting, rigging, and other theatrical equipment, the installations of elevators, and a new marquee.</p><br>
<p>The restorations included new carpets, draperies, and lighting fixtures that duplicated the original designs, and historically accurate restoration of all plaster and paint surfaces throughout the lobby, lounges, foyers, and the auditorium. Integration of acoustic treatments into the restored auditorium and lobby, and a substantially improved exterior sound isolation system were included in the restoration design. Seating capacity is now at 1,645 patrons.</p><br>
<p>The theatre reopened on January 14, 2005 and presented a near sold-out season. It now offers a wide range of performing arts events and classic films to the public, and it is managed by AC Entertainment.</p><br>
<p>The design team for this renovation effort was led by McCarty Holsaple Architects of Knoxville, Tennessee and included Westlake Reed Leskosky Architects of Cleveland, Ohio; Evergreene Studios, Historic Restoration Consultants of New York, New York; and Acoustic Consultant Kirkegaard Associates of Chicago, Illinois. The conductor was Knoxville-based Denark Construction.</p><br>
<h2>Broadway at the Tennessee</h2><br>
<p>After the failed "Broadway in Knoxville" series at the Knoxville Civic Coliseum finally came to an end due to a lack of profit, quality Broadway-style entertainment was transferred to the Tennessee Theatre for a 2008-2009 season. The series, now presented by the Tennessee Theatre, was renamed Broadway at the Tennessee and kicked off with Fred Ebbs Chicago. Productions at The Tennessee Theatre included Movin Out, Hairspray, Jesus Christ Superstar, Sweeney Todd, and Stomp.</p><br>
<p>Since its inception in 2008, the Tennessee has presented 176 performances of 54 Broadway titles</p><br>
<p>The Tennessee has welcomed over 200,000 attendees to Broadway at the Tennessee performances</p><br>
<p>The Theatre celebrated its one millionth post renovation visitor during Mary Poppins in March 2013. Mayor Tim Burchett proclaimed March 5, 2013 as Mary Poppins Day in Knox County</p><br>
<p>The set of Jersey Boys holds the record for the heaviest set, weighing a whopping 73,000 lbs.</p><br>
<p>Shamicka Benn, a Bearden High School graduate, returned to Knoxville in 2008 and again in February 2017 as Go-to-Hell Kitty in Chicago</p><br>
<h2>Historical Facts</h2><br>
<p>June 3, 1936, The Reverend W. Herschel Ford married two brothers, Ben Howard Easterday and Claude Raymond Easterday to their respective mates, Marcy Alive Hall and Lula Myrtle Norman.</p><br>
<p>On September 2, 1940, President Franklin Roosevelt&#39;s motorcade paraded through downtown Knoxville on its way to official dedication ceremonies. The Tennessee was playing the new Bing Crosby musical comedy Rhythm on the River as the president waved with his hat</p><br>
<p>Mr. Billy Barnes came back to Knoxville to play his favorite Wurlitzer one last time to accompany the showing of Yankee Doodle Dandy in September 1985. His history with the organ had spanned almost half a century</p><br>
<p>Bill Cosby came to the Tennessee, the first of several visits, to help raise funds. Cosby would not have been allowed in the door, even as a paying customer, 40 years earlier. In 1998, he was at the Tennessee helping to raise funds for its preservation. At the time, he was so popular his appearance sold out within 36 hours of the announcement.</p><br>
<p>Adab or Udab  was an ancient Sumerian city between Telloh and Nippur. It was located at the site of modern Bismaya or Bismya in the Wasit Province of Iraq.</p><br>
<h2>History of archaeological research</h2><br>
<p>Initial examinations of the site of Bismaya were by William Hayes Ward of the Wolfe Expedition in 1885 and by John Punnett Peters of the University of Pennsylvania in 1890, each spending a day there and find one cuneiform table and a few fragments. Walter Andrae visited Bismaya in 1902, found a table fragment and produced a sketch map of the site.</p><br>
<p>Excavations conducted there for six months, from Christmas of 1903 to June 1904, for the University of Chicago, by Dr. Edgar James Banks, proved that these mounds covered the site of the ancient city of Adab (Ud-Nun), hitherto known only from the Sumerian king list and a brief mention of its name in the introduction to the Hammurabi Code. The city was divided into two parts by a canal, on an island in which stood the temple, E-mach, with a ziggurat, or stepped tower. It was evidently once a city of considerable importance, but deserted at a very early period, since the ruins found close to the surface of the mounds belong to Shulgi and Ur-Nammu, kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur in the latter part of the third millennium BC, based on inscribed bricks excavated at Bismaya. Immediately below these, as at Nippur, were found artifacts dating to the reign of Naram-Suen and Sargon of Akkad, c. 2300 BC. Below these there were still 10.5 m of stratified remains, constituting seven-eighths of the total depth of the ruins. Besides the remains of buildings, walls and graves, Dr. Banks discovered a large number of inscribed clay tablets of a very early period, bronze and stone tablets, bronze implements and the like.</p><br>
<p>Of the tablets, 543 went to the Oriental Institute and roughly 1100, mostly purchased from the locals rather than excavated, went to the Istanbul Museum. The latter are still apparently unpublished.</p><br>
<p>But the two most notable discoveries were a complete statue in white marble, apparently the earliest yet found in Mesopotamia, now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, bearing the inscription, translated by Banks as "E-mach, King Da-udu, King of, Ud-Nun&quot and a temple refuse heap, consisting of great quantities of fragments of vases in marble, alabaster, onyx, porphyry and granite, some of which were inscribed, and others engraved and inlaid with ivory and precious stones.</p><br>
<p>Of the Adab tablets that ended up at the University of Chicago, sponsor of the excavations, all have been published and also made available in digital form online. Of the purchased tablets sold piecemeal to various owners, a few have also made their way into publication.</p><br>
<p>Though the Banks expedition to Bismaya was well documented by the standards of the time and many objects photographed, no final report was ever produced due to personal disputes. Recently, the Oriental Institute has re-examined the records and objects returned to the institute by Banks and produced a report.</p><br>
<p>There is a Sumerian comic tale of the Three Ox-drivers from Adab.</p><br>
<h2>Adab and its environment</h2><br>
<p>A group of tells or settlement mounds are what remains of the ancient city. The mounds are about 1.5 km long and 3 km wide, consisting of a number of low ridges, nowhere exceeding 12 m in height, lying somewhat nearer to the Tigris than the Euphrates, about a day&#39;s journey to the south-east of Nippur.</p><br>
<h2>Occupation history</h2><br>
<p>Adab was occupied from at least the Early Dynastic period. According to Sumerian text Inannas descent to the netherworld, there was a temple of Inanna named E-shar at Adab during the reign of Dumuzid of Uruk. In another text in the same series, Dumuzids dream, Dumuzid of Uruk is toppled from his opulence by a hungry mob composed of men from the major cities of Sumer, including Adab.</p><br>
<p>A king of Kish, Mesilim, appears to have ruled at Adab, based on inscriptions found at Bismaya. One king of Adab, Lugal-Anne-Mundu, appearing in the Sumerian King List, is mentioned in few contemporary inscriptions; some that are much later copies claim that he established a vast, but brief empire stretching from Elam all the way to Lebanon and the Amorite territories along the Jordan. Adab is also mentioned in some of the Ebla tablets from roughly the same era as a trading partner of Ebla in northern Syria, shortly before Ebla was destroyed by unknown forces.</p><br>
<p>A marble statue was found at Bismaya inscribed with the name of another king of Adab, variously translated as Lugal-daudu, Da-udu, Lugaldalu, and Esar. Brick stamps, found by Banks during his excavation of Adab state that the Akkadian ruler Naram-Suen built a temple to Inanna at Adab, but the temple was not found during the dig, and is not known for certain to be E-shar.</p><br>
<p>Several governors of the city under Ur III are also known. While no later archaeological evidence was found at Bismaya, the excavations there were brief, and there were later epigraphic references to Adab, such as in the Code of Hammurabi.</p><br>
<p>The Delta Blues Museum in Clarksdale, Mississippi, United States exists to collect, preserve, and provide public access to and awareness of the blues. Along with holdings of significant blues-related memorabilia, the museum also exhibits and collects art portraying the blues tradition, including works by sculptor Floyd Shaman and photographer Birney Imes.</p><br>
<p>The museum is located in the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Passenger Depot, also known as Illinois Central Passenger Depot or Clarksdale Passenger Depot, which was built in 1926 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum has been visited by many notable artists such as Eric Clapton and Paul Simon. The Texas-based rock band ZZ Top, especially front man Billy Gibbons, have made this museum their pet project and have raised thousands of dollars in support. The museum also focuses on educating young people interested in learning to play musical instruments.</p><br>
<p>The museum houses many artifacts related to the blues, notably the shack where blues legend Muddy Waters purportedly lived in his youth on Stovall Plantation, near Clarksdale. The shack was restored to structural stability through the intercession of Isaac Tigrett the House of Blues owner and transported from Stovall Plantation on a tour of HoB venues before being returned to Mississippi to the museum and rebuilt inside.</p><br>
<p>There is a 2003 30-minute documentary of the same name.</p><br>
<h2>Railroad building</h2><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1995. The museum then moved into the former railroad depot in 1999. The circa 1918 brick building served as the passenger rail depot of the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad and later the freight depot of Central Illinois Railroad.</p><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson is a mountain in the USA state of Montana, and is one of the many 10,000+ ft peaks in the Tobacco Root Mountains. The mountain is located in Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest.  Hollowtop Mountain is an adjacent, taller peak less than.75 miles  to the north. Over the years, the two summits have had numerous names and elevations recorded on various maps. According to USA Geological Survey topographic maps, Mount Jefferson is 10,513 ft, while Hollowtop Mountain to the north is 10,604 ft.</p><br>
<h2>Nomenclature</h2><br>
<p>Nomenclature for Mount Jefferson has seen considerable change and confusion over the years. A.N. Winchell, in his 1914 report, Mining Districts of the Dillon Quadrangle, referred to the highest peak in the Tobacco Roots as “Jefferson Peak, locally called Old Hollowtop.” Since that time the more northerly, and higher, of two adjacent peaks has usually been called Hollowtop. This naming convention is easily explained upon viewing the dish-shaped northeasterly-trending glacial cirque that occupies the top of Hollowtop peak. Information is scanty before 1914. Peale (1896) referred to Ward Peak, near Pony, and “unnamed high peaks” in the range. Present local terminology places Ward Peak further south, near McAlister. The idea that Lewis and Clark named the ranges along with the rivers cannot be confirmed.</p><br>
<p>Some earlier, published maps labeled the northern peak as Mt. Jefferson. Confusion may arise from the fact that the horizontal triangulation control station (VABM) named JEFFERSON is located on the southern peak, and this designation is found on many maps.</p><br>
<p>In 1933, Tansley and others referred to the high point of the range as Mt. Jefferson, at 10,600 ft. The northern peak was labeled Mt. Jefferson on the Gallatin National Forest map of 1937, with an erroneous (but long-perpetuated) elevation of 10,740’ given. The southern peak was called Hollow Top Mountain, at 10,513’. The next year, 1938, the Deerlodge National Forest map dodged the issue: the northern peak received two designations — Hollowtop Mtn. and Mt. Jefferson. The southern peak was labeled with the JEFFERSON control station only.</p><br>
<p>Reid in 1957 mapped the northern peak as Mt. Jefferson and the southern one as Goat Mountain. In 1960, the Waterloo 15-minute topographic quad showed Mt. Jefferson, to the north, at 10,604’, and the southern one as Hollowtop Mtn (10,513’) with the JEFFERSON control station label. In 1976, the USA Board on Geographic Names stated that this was the correct designation.</p><br>
<p>The 1962 Dillon Quad (1:250,000) labeled the northern peak Hollow Top Mt., and the other one had no designation other than the triangular control station mark. The 1963 Beaverhead National Forest map shows Mt. Jefferson to the north at 10,604’ and the JEFFERSON control station to the south at 10,740’, while the 1970 Deerlodge National Forest map is similar, but with the name Hollowtop Mtn. and no elevation for the southern peak.</p><br>
<p>Oil Company highway maps from the late 1960s and early 1970s show Hollowtop Mtn. at 10,740’, while the Official Montana Highway Map, from at least 1971 onwards, has Hollow Top Mtn. at 10,604’. As recently as 1976, the Beaverhead National Forest map showed Mt. Jefferson to the north (10,604’) and Hollowtop Mtn. with the JEFFERSON control station to the south.</p><br>
<p>In 1987, the Interagency Visitors Map of Southwest Montana (produced by the Forest Service, USGS, and State of Montana) shows the northern peak labeled Hollowtop Mtn. (10,604’), and the southern peak is marked Mt. Jefferson and includes the control station label. This is the first map known that shows both names, with Hollowtop north of Mt. Jefferson.</p><br>
<p>Finally, the 1989 7½-minute quad (Noble Peak) also shows Hollowtop Mountain (10,604’) to the north, with Mt. Jefferson (10,513’) to the south with the control station. Numerous hand-held GPS measurements indicate that these listed elevations are probably accurate.</p><br>
<p>Apparently no peak has an elevation of 10,740’, and all sources agree that the JEFFERSON triangulation station is on the southern peak. Decades of use would have “Hollowtop” to the north, and perhaps the newer maps reflect this usage. The northern peak is labeled “Hollowtop” and “Hollow Top” on various maps, with a single word somewhat more common.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Most of the mountain is underlain by the Tobacco Root Batholith, a body of granite intruded about 75 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous Period. The Tobacco Root Batholith is often called a satellite of the much larger Boulder Batholith. Parts of Mt. Jefferson-Hollowtop contain Archean metamorphic rocks. Intrusion of the batholith produced considerable mineralization along northwest-trending faults. The Mammoth Mine, north of Mt. Jefferson-Hollowtop produced more than $2,000,000 in gold over its life (mostly in the 1880s-1910s). The Nicholson Gold Mine, on the west flank of Mt. Jefferson, has been active as recently as the middle 1990s, but no production has been reported. The area of the mine is private property, a patented mining claim.</p><br>
<p>The bowl-like crest of Hollowtop, best viewed from the towns of Pony, Montana and Harrison, Montana to the east, is not a classical glacial cirque. Snow and perhaps ice certainly accumulated there during the ice age, but scouring typical of a moving glacier is not evident.</p><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson is a mountain located on the Continental Divide between Fremont County of northeastern Idaho and Beaverhead County of southwestern Montana. Mount Jefferson is the highest point of the Centennial Mountains, whose crest runs along the Continental Divide and can be climbed using a class 2 route  from the access road to neighboring Sawtell Peak.</p><br>
<p>The south and west slopes of Mount Jefferson drain into Hell Roaring Creek, thence into Red Rock Creek, the Red Rock River, the Beaverhead River, the Jefferson River, the Missouri River, the Mississippi River, and into the Gulf of Mexico.</p><br>
<p>Browers Spring, the source of Hell Roaring Creek, on the mountains east flank in Montana, is considered the absolute headwaters of the Missouri River.</p><br>
<p>The northeast slope of Mt. Jefferson drains into the South Fork of Duck Creek, thence into Henrys Lake, the Henrys Fork of the Snake River, the Columbia River, and into the Pacific Ocean.</p><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson is a mountain located in Ashe County, North Carolina. The mountain is part of the Mount Jefferson State Natural Area. The mountain has an elevation of 4,665 ft above sea level, and it sharply rises more than 1,600 feet above the towns of Jefferson, North Carolina and West Jefferson.</p><br>
<p>A paved road leads to the mountain&#39;s summit; on a clear day the summit affords sweeping views of the surrounding countryside, the towns of Jefferson and West Jefferson, and the Appalachian Mountains in Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina.</p><br>
<p>The mountain has a secondary peak at the eastern end of its ridge which is marked as Luther Rock on trails and as Luther Overlook on USGS maps.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Before the American Civil War the mountain was a popular hiding place for slaves who had escaped from their owners in the central and eastern sections of North Carolina. As a result, legend has it, the peak was named "Nigger Mountain," According to another source, Nigger Mountain was named from its black granite coloration. It was later called the less offensive "Negro Mountain" for many years until finally, in an effort to find a less-racially offensive name, the mountain was renamed Mount Jefferson after the town at its base.</p><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson is located in Coos County, New Hampshire, and is the third highest mountain in the state. The mountain is named after Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, and is part of the Presidential Range of the White Mountains. Mount Jefferson is flanked by Mount Adams  and Mount Clay .</p><br>
<p>The mountain has several interesting features, making it a popular hike. Two distinct ridges lead to its summit: Ridge of the Caps and Castle Ridge. The mountain is surrounded by the three dramatic glacial cirques of Jefferson Ravine, Castle Ravine, and the Great Gulf. Finally, Monticello Lawn is a large expanse of alpine sedge and rush near the otherwise talus-covered summit cone. When viewed from the Mount Washington Auto Road, Jefferson features an arrow-shaped bald patch pointing to its summit.</p><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson has a direct ascent along the Caps Ridge Trail, whose base, Jefferson Notch, is the highest point of any public road in New Hampshire at 3,009 ft. This route, gaining only 2,700 ft vertically to the summit, results in it having the least distance of ascent of any Presidential mountain (about 2.5 miles). However, climbing over the "caps" involves some exposed scrambling and can be steep and challenging at times.</p><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson is a mountain located just outside Charlottesville, Virginia, United States, in Albemarle County. It lies south of Lewis Mountain, and is positioned at the northeastern edge of the Ragged Mountains.</p><br>
<p>It was named Mount Jefferson in honor of Thomas Jefferson after the establishment of the Leander McCormick Observatory on the summit in 1885. Jefferson had urged the purchase of the mountain for the University of Virginia, in part because of its suitability as a site for an observatory. In addition, he valued it for the water resources and the abundance of timber for construction of the university.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the renaming it had been known as Old Reservoir Mountain and Observatory Mountain (for an observatory which Jefferson directed to be built on the summit), and is now informally known as Observatory Hill.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is traversed by McCormick Road and Edgemont Road (which also runs along a neighboring ridge — Edgemont or Midmont), and is the site of several other University of Virginia buildings including a deactivated nuclear reactor, a linear accelerator and dormitories. It has been preserved in a largely wooded state for the protection of McCormick Observatory from light pollution. It is used by birdwatchers, mountain bikers, hikers, and students and faculty at The Judge Advocate General&#39;s Legal Center and School, USA Army, for military physical fitness training. The headquarters for the National Radio Astronomy Observatory are also located on Mount Jefferson.</p><br>
<p>The Trask River is in northwestern Oregon in the United States. It drains a mountainous timber-producing area of the Northern Oregon Coast Range west of Portland into Tillamook Bay and the Pacific Ocean. It is one of five rivers&mdash;the Tillamook, the Trask, the Wilson, the Kilchis, and the Miami&mdash;that flow into the bay.</p><br>
<p>The main stem of the river is 18 mi long from where its two forks join at 45.439830&deg; latitude, -123.611505&deg; longitude. The North Fork, 30 mi long, rises in several forks itself in the Tillamook State Forest in western Washington County, west of Forest Grove, Oregon. It flows generally west into eastern Tillamook County. The South Fork, 10 mi long, rises in southern Tillamook County at 45.3489972&deg; latitude, -123.6534486&deg; longitude and flows generally northward.</p><br>
<p>The river is known for its runs of Steelhead and Chinook salmon.</p><br>
<p>The river is named for Elbridge Trask who settled on the shores of Tillamook Bay in 1848. Trask&#39;s overland journey was described in the 1960 historical novel Trask by Don Berry, as well as two sequels. The novels are collectively known as the "Trask novels."</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The Trask River is formed by the confluence of North Fork Trask River and South Fork Trask River near Trask County Park in the Tillamook State Forest. It is paralleled for much of its length by Trask River Road. Flowing generally west, the river receives Rowe Creek from the left about 16 mi from the mouth, then Samson Creek from the right about 1 mi later. Over the next 4 mi Burton, Blue Ridge, Hatchery, Trowbridge, Little Rock, and Panther creeks all enter from the right. The river passes a United States Geological Survey stream gauge at river mile (RM) 10.95 or river kilometer (RK) 17.62, just before receiving Cedar Creek from the right.</p><br>
<p>Thereafter, Gold and Hanenkrat creeks enter from the left and Green Creek from the right. The river receives Mill Creek from the left about 5 mi from the mouth. About 1 mi later, the stream passes under USA Route 101 and flows around the southwestern edge of Tillamook. Receiving Hoquarten and Nolan sloughs from the right, it merges with the Tillamook River and flows into Tillamook Bay near Memaloose Point.</p><br>
<h3>Discharge</h3><br>
<p>The United States Geological Survey (USGS) monitors the flow of the Trask River at a stream gauge 10.95 mi inland from the mouth of the river. Based on data collected from April 1996 through 2008, the average flow at this gauge is 985 cuft/s. This is from a drainage area of 156 square miles, about 89 percent of the total Trask River watershed. The maximum flow recorded there was 22,500 cuft/s on November 25, 1999, and the minimum flow was 49 cuft/s on September 11, 2007.</p><br>
<p>The Salt Lake City Council Hall is currently home to offices of the Utah Office of Tourism and the Utah Film Commission and is located on Capitol Hill in Salt Lake City, Utah. The building is historically important as the Old Salt Lake City Hall or just Old City Hall from 1866 to 1894.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Council Hall was originally Salt Lake City Hall, built to replace an older, smaller city hall completed just six years earlier on the eve of the Utah War, a standoff between Latter-day Saints ("Mormons") and federal troops. This small city hall was almost immediately inadequate for the growing city, so planning work on a new City Hall began by 1863.</p><br>
<p>Ground for the new hall was broken on February 8, 1864 under the direction of the prolific Salt Lake City architect William H. Folsom who was then the official architect for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). Built at First South and 120 East (more on Salt Lake City’s coordinate system), sandstone for the structure was delivered from Red Butte Canyon on Utah&#39;s first chartered railroad. The well-furnished Greek revival building was completed at a cost of $70,000.</p><br>
<p>In January 1866, City Hall was dedicated by George Q. Cannon, a prominent LDS leader. Many other LDS leaders attended the dedication including Brigham Young. This is unsurprising because territorial and city politics were controlled by "The Peoples Party", which was the political organ of the LDS Church. The mayor at the time was Peoples Party member Abraham O. Smoot, the first of six mayors that would use the building. The Peoples Party would control Mayors office until 1890 when the Liberal Party (territorial non-Mormon party) gained control of city government, partially because of anti-polygamy legislation which barred many Mormon polygamists from holding office.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Six rooms on the first floor housed the mayor&#39;s office and other city departments. From 1866 until the completion of the Salt Lake City and County Building in 1894, the City Hall was the seat of Salt Lake City Government and meeting place for the Utah Territorial legislature. The Rose Room on the second floor served both as a general courtroom and the legislative floor.</p><br>
<p>The Assembly Hall was often the site of tension between Mormons, non-Mormons, and federal troops, but possibly the most dramatic event occurred in August 1874; Mayor Daniel H. Wells declared martial law from the balcony of City Hall. This was in response to US Marshal arrests of several Salt Lake City police officers in concert with taking over the polls for election of a Utah representative to congress.</p><br>
<p>After 1894 the city used the Hall as police headquarters until 1915. Following this the building was used in minor capacities by the city.</p><br>
<p>To make way for a federal office building downtown, the old City Hall was relocated to Capitol Hill in 1961. The building itself and land were donated by the city and the LDS Church to the state of Utah. The LDS Church also underwrote most of the $300,000 cost for dismantling the building exterior into 325 sandstone slabs. They were numbered and reassembling around all-new woodwork on Capitol Hill. The state paid for most landscaping, furnishing, and other peripheral work at the building&#39;s current location just south of the State Capitol. Restoration was done under the direction of architect Edward O. Anderson, and was mostly finished by 1962. The building was renamed "Council Hall."</p><br>
<p>The Hulihee Palace is located in historic Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, on Ali&#39;i Drive. The former vacation home of Hawaiian royalty, it was converted to a museum run by the Daughters of Hawaii, showcasing furniture and artifacts. It is located at 75–5718 Alii Drive, Kailua-Kona.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The palace was originally built out of lava rock by John Adams Kuakini (governor of the island of Hawaii) during the Kingdom of Hawaii. When he died in 1844 he left it to his hānai (adopted) son William Pitt Leleiohoku I, the son of Prime Minister William Pitt Kalanimoku. Leleiohoku died in the measles epidemic of 1848 and left it to his son John William Pitt Kīnaʻu, but he died young and the palace went to his mother Princess Ruth Keʻelikōlani. Ruth made Hulihee her chief residence for most of her life, but she preferred to sleep in a grass hut on the palace grounds rather than in the palace. She invited all of the reigning monarchs to vacation at Hulihee, from Kamehameha III to Liliʻuokalani. Ruth died and left the palace to her cousin and sole heir Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop.</p><br>
<p>It was later sold to King Kalākaua and Queen Kapiolani. Kalākaua renamed the palace Hikulani Hale, which means “House of the Seventh ruler,” referring to himself, the seventh monarch of the monarchy that began with King Kamehameha I. In 1885, King Kalākaua had the palace plastered over the outside to give the building a more refined appearance. After Kalākaua&#39;s death it passed to Kapiolani who left Hulihee Palace to her two nephews, Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole Piʻikoi and Prince David Kawānanakoa. In 1927 the Daughters of Hawaii, a group dedicated to preserving the cultural legacy of the Hawaiian Islands, restored Hulihee Palace and turned it into a museum. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places listings on the island of Hawaii in 1973 as site 73000653.</p><br>
<p>The palace&#39;s walls and ceiling had slight cracks following the 2006 Kiholo Bay earthquake that was centered on the Kohala coast.</p><br>
<h2>Images</h2><br>
<p>Plum Island is an island in the Town of Southold in Suffolk County, New York in the United States. The island is situated in Gardiners Bay, east of Orient Point, off the eastern end of the North Fork coast of Long Island. It is about 3 mi long and 1 mi wide at its widest point.</p><br>
<p>The island is the site of the Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC) which was established by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1954. The Island is also the site of the former USA military installation Fort Terry (c. 1897), and the historic Plum Island Light (c. 1869), and its automated replacement.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is owned in its entirety by the United States government, which was considering sale of the island as part of a debt-reduction package. but suspended the plan in February 2012. Access to the island is controlled by the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS).</p><br>
<p>On August 29, 2013, the United States General Services Administration (GSA) and United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced a final "Record of Decision (ROD): Public Sale of Plum Island, New York".</p><br>
<p>A broad-based coalition of conservation, environmental, and civic organizations are working to preserve Plum Island, with its diverse and unique natural and cultural resources, for the public trust. These organizations include: the Preserve Plum Island Coalition (PPIC), the Connecticut Fund for the Environment, along with its permanent regional program Save the Sound, and Soundkeeper, Inc.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The northern portion of Plum Island is a recessional moraine deposit, and is part of the Harbor Hill-Roanoke Point-Fishers Island-Charlestown Moraine, thus is one of the Outer Lands. Boulders in the moraine can be seen in the eroding northern slope of the island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Plum Island was called "Manittuwond" by the Native American Pequot Nation. Plum Island was probably first seen by Europeans in 1614 when Adriaen Block, a Dutchman employed by the Dutch West India Company, charted the area. The Island was named from the beach plums that grow along the shores, and an old Dutch map made about 1640 shows the name "Pruym Eyelant" (Plum Island). In 1659, the Island was purchased by Samuel Wyllys III (Samuel Willis III), son of the Governor of Connecticut, from Wyandanch, the ruling local Indian Chieftain of Long Island, for a coat, a barrel of biscuits and 100 fishhooks.</p><br>
<p>On August 11, 1775, General David Wooster dispatched 120 soldiers to the island, then known as Plumb Island, who were immediately fired upon by the British. After firing a single return volley the soldiers retreated back to Long Island. Although no casualties were reported, this brief skirmish is believed to have represented at least one American military first, the first amphibious assault by an American army.</p><br>
<p>The historic Plum Island Lighthouse is located at the west end of the island. The original lighthouse on Plum Island was constructed in 1827; the current structure was built in 1869. The light marks the east side of "Plum Gut", a mile-wide entrance to Long Island Sound with extremely strong tidal currents. The light aided navigation near the entrance to Long Island Sound, especially through the "Plum Gut" channel between Orient Point and Plum Island.</p><br>
<p>After passing through the possession of more than twenty families, in 1899, the Island was purchased in its entirety by the United States Government, following the Spanish–American War, for approximately $90,000. The USA Army established a Coast Artillery post, later known as Fort Terry, on the Island, in 1897. During World War II the Fort was activated as an anti-submarine base and deactivated after World War II. The Fort was later reactivated and assigned to the Army Chemical Corps.</p><br>
<p>In 1954 the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established the Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC). The Center conducts research on animal pathogens to protect farmers, ranchers, and the national food supply. Because of the nature of the research, access to the Island and the research facility is restricted.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) assumed ownership of the Island and all its facilities. The USDA continues its long running science mission at PIADC jointly with DHS, who are charged with the safe and secure operation of the facility.</p><br>
<p>As one result of the heightened national security initiatives following the attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, Plum Island was considered as a potential site for a new high-security animal disease lab, National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF). In September 2008, the USA Congress passed (Sec. 540 - New York) that directed the General Services Administration (GSA) to close the PIADC, sell the Island to the public, and to use the proceeds towards the construction of the NBAF, if it were decided that NBAF would be built elsewhere. In January 2009, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) selected the City of Manhattan, Kansas, as the site for the NBAF, and decided to relocate the PIADC there as well. However, the decline in real estate values stemming from the subprime mortgage crisis and late-2000s recession caused the sale of the Island to be considered no longer viable. Because the proceeds from selling the Island were needed to construct the new facility in Kansas, the project was effectively cancelled for the short term when the 2013 federal budget request contained no funding for the new facility. As part of the planned sale of Plum Island, the United States Government has been preparing an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the Island, one objective of which is to determine whether the impact of nearly sixty years of animal testing on the Island constitutes a threat to public health that could preclude the planned sale.</p><br>
<h2>Book Documenting History</h2><br>
<p>In June 2012, the announced that it planned to publish a detailed history of Plum Island from the period of colonial settlement through modern times. The book, according to the Society, would correct a number of errors and mistakes in previous historical examinations, and provide the first complete, annotated history of the Island to date. The Society stated further that it was currently looking for original documents and images relating to the historic structures and families that once occupied Plum Island.</p><br>
<p>In September 2014, the announced the publication of the new book documenting the history of Plum Island from its creation to the present day. Among the topics covered is the Islands use by British forces during the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, the Islands use as a place of recreation during the "Leisure Age," as well as serving as the location of the 1914 court martial of Benjamin M. Koehler, whose conviction on charges of homosexuality eventually led to the policy of Dont ask, dont tell. The Society noted in its press release regarding the release of the book:</p><br>
<p>"Through its many incarnations, Plum Island has managed to remain in a semi-natural state. Today, it provides a rare glimpse of what Long Island and much of the Northeast was like before it was gripped by progress. At the same time, it bears the marks of the human history that has unfolded there: the lighthouse tended by so many stalwarts; the narrow roads, rusted railroad tracks and overgrown artillery batteries once filled with soldiers who never saw combat; and, of course, the modern-day facility where the daily pursuit of science both moves us forward and pushes us away."</p><br>
<h2>Future, public activism, current legislative activity</h2><br>
<p>In 2008, the USA Congress passed, and USA President George W. Bush signed (Sec. 540 - New York), part of the Consolidated Security, Disaster Assistance, and Continuing Appropriations Act, 2009, which requires the sale of Plum Island and the Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC) to help with the funding of the new National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility in Manhattan, Kansas. This legislation started the process that may ultimately end with the Federal Government’s sale of all of Plum Island to a private party.</p><br>
<p>The, and, are the two organizations which are spearheading the legal aspects of the movement to preserve Plum Island, including the repeal of (Sec. 540 - New York). In addition, a broad-based coalition of conservation, environmental, and civic, organizations, and others, have formed the (PPIC), for the common purpose of protecting Plum Island for the public trust. The advocate that Plum Island be considered for designation as a National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) or other protected area. The, notes that in recent decades the Federal Government has established a number of NWRs in the eastern Peconic/southern New England region. These NWRs include: Nomans Land Island, off the coast of Massachusetts; Block Island, Sachuest Point, John H. Chafee, Trustom Pond, and Ninigret, in coastal Rhode Island; the ten units of Stuart B. McKinney NWR stretching along the Connecticut coastline; and Elizabeth A. Morton NWR, in Sag Harbor, New York.</p><br>
<p>On July 16, 2013, former USA Congressman Tim Bishop (First Congressional District of New York) introduced a new bipartisan bill (Save, Dont Sell Plum Island&#39;). This goal of this bill was to preserve critical biodiversity, and prevent further development, on Plum Island, by eliminating the current requirement in law that all of Plum Island be sold at public auction as part of the construction of the new planned National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF) facility to be built in Manhattan, Kansas, to replace the Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC) on Plum Island. Similar legislation was also introduced in the USA Senate at the same time as that in the USA House of Representatives.</p><br>
<p>On August 29, 2013, the USDA and DHS announced a final Record of Decision (ROD) which determined that the entirety of Plum Island be sold to the private sector to help offset the cost of constructing a new facility for the PIADC in Manhattan, Kansas.</p><br>
<p>On September 30, 2013, New York Governor Andrew M. Cuomo sent a letter to the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and United States General Services Administration (GSA), calling for both agencies to submit to a consent order requiring them to present a comprehensive environmental cleanup plan for Plum Island, in Suffolk County, New York, and giving New York State final review of the Island’s conditions before it is put up for sale.</p><br>
<p>On January 5, 2015, The Connecticut Fund For the Environment (CFE) & Save The Sound jointly sent a letter to the USA Dept. of Homeland Security (DHS) and USA General Services Administration (GSA), indicating a 60-Day Notice of Intent to Sue these agencies. This letter outlines how the final disposition of Plum Island, under the current terms of, is in violation of the Endangered Species Act (ESA).</p><br>
<p>On April 1, 2015, New York and Connecticut Senators Senators Schumer, Gillibrand, Blumenthal and Murphy, sent a letter to the Appropriation Committee asking for the repeal of. The Senators explain that the original financial reasoning to sell Plum Island is no longer valid, and that it is in the best interest of the country to conserve Plum Island.</p><br>
<p>On April 17, 2015, Congressman Lee Zeldin, representing the 1st District of New York, re-introduced H.R. 1887, intended to protect Plum Island, which was previously sponsored by his predecessor, Congressman Tim Bishop. The goal of the legislation is to reverse that mandated the public sale of Plum Island by the federal government to the highest bidder. Congressman Zeldin said he has always supported keeping the Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC) open, as well as conserving the natural resources on the Island. He plans to work with his Congressional colleagues on a bi-partisan basis, to seek passage of the bill.</p><br>
<p>On September 28, 2015, the New York State Assembly, Albany, New York, held a Public Hearing on Plum Island, "The Preservation of Plum Island As Open Space".</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The 1988 novel The Silence of the Lambs by author Thomas Harris mentions "Plum Island" as a potential supervised vacation site for Hannibal Lecter as a reward for helping to catch Jame Gumb. He derisively refers to it as "Anthrax Island." It is also used in this way in the movie adaptation of the novel.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is a 1997 novel by Long Island, New York author Nelson DeMille, who uses the Island as one of his settings in the book.</p><br>
<p>The 2004 book Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government&#39;s Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory by Michael Carroll, Ph.D., examines the Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC).</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is the title and focus of one episode of the television series Conspiracy Theory with Jesse Ventura. The episode was originally broadcast on Oct. 15, 2010, in Season Two.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is theorized by some to be the origin of the monster in the 2008 movie Cloverfield.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is referred to in Season 4, Episode 4, "Dawn of the Med", of the show Royal Pains.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is the location of a deadly government conspiracy in the 2014 novel, The Montauk Monster by Hunter Shea.</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is the location of the Advanced Neurotechnologies Laboratory (ANS) in the 2016 novel, Game Changer by Douglas E. Richards</p><br>
<p>Plum Island is the location of the US government&#39;s main research facility trying to stop the Hemorrhage Virus in the post-apocalyptic Extinction Cycle series by Nicholas Sansbury Smith.</p><br>
<p>"Plum Island" is a song by the band Waterparks featured on their album, Double Dare.</p><br>
<p>Pika Peak is a mountain located between Mount Richardson and Ptarmigan Peak in Banff National Park. The mountain was named in 1928 after the pika, the small "rock rabbit" that inhabits alpine regions.</p><br>
<p>The Lake Louise Mountain Resort is developed on the southern slopes of the Merlin Ridge, which includes Mount Richardson, Ptarmigan Peak and Pika Peak. A campground is located at the foot of the mountain, near Hidden Lake.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent was made in 1911 by L.L. Delafield and L.M. Earle, who were guided by Rudolph Aemmer and Edward Feuz jr.</p><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>The scrambling route via the Richardson-Pika col and the west ridge is rated difficult. Either gain the col by ascending Mt. Richardson (easy scramble) or by attacking the lower flanks of Pika Peak above Hidden Lake.</p><br>
<p>Mount Richardson is the highest mountain of the Slate Range located beside Pika Peak in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada. The mountain was named in 1859 by James Hector after Sir John Richardson who was the ships surgeon and naturalist on John Franklins 1819 and 1825 expeditions into the Arctic.</p><br>
<p>The Lake Louise Mountain Resort is developed on the southern slopes of the Merlin Ridge, which includes Mount Richardson, Ptarmigan Peak, Pika Peak. A campground is located at the foot of the mountain, near Hidden Lake.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent was made in 1911 by L.L. Delafield who was guided by Edward Feuz jr.</p><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>The scrambling route (rated easy/moderate) begins from Hidden Lake and ascends the southern slopes to the top. The only real challenge on the ascent are a few rubbly gullies just above the lake. A traverse to Pika Peak can be made via the Richardson-Pika col and the west ridge, however this undertaking is much more difficult.</p><br>
<p>The Rotunda is a building located on The Lawn on the original grounds of the University of Virginia. It was designed by Thomas Jefferson to represent the "authority of nature and power of reason" and was inspired by the Pantheon in Rome. Construction began in 1822 and was completed shortly after Jeffersons death in 1826. The grounds of the new university were unique in that they surrounded a library housed in the Rotunda rather than a church, as was common at other universities in the English-speaking world. The Rotunda is seen as a lasting symbol of Jeffersons belief in the separation of church and education, as well as his lifelong dedication to both education and architecture. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966, and is part of the landmark University of Virginia Historic District, designated in 1971.</p><br>
<p>The collegiate structure, the immediate area around it, and Jefferson&#39;s nearby home at Monticello combine to form one of only three modern man-made sites in the United States to be internationally protected and preserved as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO (the other two are the Statue of Liberty and Independence Hall).</p><br>
<p>The original construction cost of the Rotunda was $57,773 ($992,792 in 2006 dollars). The building stands 77 feet (23.5 m) in both height and diameter.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Design influences</h3><br>
<p>Jeffersons design was influenced by the architectural drawings of Andrea Palladio and is an example of Palladian architecture. The direct source for Jeffersons inspiration is believed to be a drawing of the Pantheon in the 1721 Leoni translation of Palladio, which Jefferson owned and referred to during the building process. Jefferson used the detailed measurements of the Pantheon to guide the proportions of his Rotunda. The Pantheons dome is 143 feet in diameter, while Jeffersons Rotunda is 77 feet, "being half that of the Pantheon and consequently one fourth in area, and one eighth in volume."</p><br>
<p>Jefferson also deferred to Palladio&#39;s model for significant details of the building. In a letter to Thomas Appleton, then the United States consul in Liguria, Jefferson requested pricing for "ten Corinthian capitals for columns of 32 I. diminished diam. and 8 do. half capitals of the same diam. for pilasters of 30 minutes projection from the wall, to be copied from those of the Rotunda, or Pantheon, of Rome, as represented in Palladio."</p><br>
<h3>Design and construction</h3><br>
<p>During the Marquis de Lafayettes grand tour of the United States in 1824 and 1825, the Marquis and former President James Madison dined with Thomas Jefferson in the Dome Room of the unfinished Rotunda at the Universitys inaugural banquet, and Lafayette toasted Jefferson as the "Father of the University of Virginia". This moved Jefferson, and he later had the phrase inscribed on his grave. A bust of Lafayette was given to the University in 1904 by the Government of France to honor the friendship between the two men. Today it stands in the North Oval Room.</p><br>
<p>The University being the first at which students could specialize in the field of Astronomy, Jefferson toyed with the idea of painting the interior of the Dome Room with images of the night sky to aid the students in their learning. He went so far as to begin designing a new mechanism with which students would be able to "float" through the air and study heavenly bodies from closer different viewpoints. They would also be equipped with a control to move the stars around the Dome. The idea was eventually abandoned but would have been the first planetarium in the United States. The Transit of Venus of 1882 was observed from the steps of the Rotunda, in a coordinated effort with McCormick Observatory.</p><br>
<h3>Alterations</h3><br>
<p>A structure called the Annex, also known as "New Hall," was added to the north side of the Rotunda in 1853 to provide additional classroom space needed due to overcrowding. (A rare photograph of the Annex may be viewed at the University of Virginia&#39;s online visual history collection.)</p><br>
<p>In 1895, the Rotunda was entirely gutted by a disastrous fire that started in the Annex. University students saved what was, for them, the most important item within the Rotunda — a life-size likeness of Mr. Jefferson carved from marble that was given to the University by Alexander Galt in 1861; the students also rescued a portion of the books of the University library from the Dome Room, as well as various scientific instruments from the classrooms in the Annex. Shortly after the fire, the faculty drew up a recommendation to the Board of Visitors, recommending a program of rebuilding that called for the reconstruction of the Rotunda and the replacement of the lost classroom space of the Annex with a set of buildings at the south end of the Lawn. In the new design, the wooden dome was replaced with a fireproof tile dome by the Guastavino Company of New York in 1898-1899. The Rotunda was rebuilt with a modified design by Stanford White, a nationally known architect and head of a firm in New York City. Whereas Jeffersons Rotunda had three floors, Whites had only two, but a larger Dome Room. In addition, the Annex was not rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>In 1976 during Americas Bicentennial, Whites Rotunda interior was gutted and completely rebuilt, at a cost of $2.4 million, to Jeffersons original design. In the Bicentennial issue of the AIA Journal, the American Institute of Architects called Jeffersons Rotunda, Lawn, and nearby home at Monticello "the proudest achievement of American architecture in the past 200 years".</p><br>
<p>There is a plaque, on the south side of the Rotunda, listing the names of students and graduates of The University who were killed during the Civil War. Other plaques on the south side list those killed during World War I while plaques on the north side list those killed in World War II and the Korean War.</p><br>
<p>Today, doctoral students defend their dissertations in the North Oval Room, and many events (including monthly dinners for residents of the Lawn) are held inside the Dome Room. Other important events are held on the steps of the Rotunda, which is also the traditional starting point for students streaking the Lawn.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, the University began an extensive construction project to repair and renovate the aging Rotunda. The first phase of the project will replace the Rotunda&#39;s copper roof. Although the engineers were several months ahead of schedule, the roof remained an unpainted copper for the graduating class of 2013. During the renovation, a nineteenth-century chemistry laboratory was found within the walls on the bottom floor featuring a chemical hearth and a sophisticated ventilation system through a series of brick tunnels.</p><br>
<h2>Legacy</h2><br>
<p>Most notably designed by inspiration of the Rotunda and Lawn are the expansive green spaces headed by Rotunda-like buildings built at Duke University in 1892, Johns Hopkins University in 1902, the University of Illinois in 1907, Rice University in 1910, Peabody College of Vanderbilt University in 1915, the Green at the University of Delaware in 1916, Killian Court at MIT in 1916 and the "Grand Auditorium" of Tsinghua University in Beijing built in 1917. Additionally, Dallas Hall at Southern Methodist University (SMU), Hendricks Chapel at Syracuse University, and Grawemeyer Hall at the University of Louisville were modeled after Jefferson&#39;s Rotunda. The Sterling Divinity Quadrangle at Yale Divinity School (1932) was closely based on the Academical Village at U.Va., but with the Marquand Chapel taking the place of the Rotunda.</p><br>
<p>The original campus at the University of Alabama was modeled after Jeffersons Rotunda and Lawn. The Rotunda there, completed in 1833, also contained the universitys library. However, it and most of the other public campus buildings were burned as part of Wilson&#39;s Raid during the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>Walker Lake is a natural lake, in the Great Basin in western Nevada in the United States. It is 11 mi  long and 5 mi  wide, in northwestern Mineral County along the east side of the Wassuk Range, about 75 mi  southeast of Reno. The lake is fed from the north by the Walker River and has no natural outlet except absorption and evaporation. The community of Walker Lake, Nevada, is found along the southwest shore.</p><br>
<p>The lakebed is a remnant of prehistoric Lake Lahontan that covered much of northwestern Nevada during the ice age. Although the ancient history of Walker Lake has been extensively studied by researchers seeking to establish a climatic timeline for the region as part of the Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Repository study, this research has raised many puzzling questions. Unlike Pyramid Lake, the lake itself has dried up several times since the end of the Pleistocene, probably due to natural diversions of the Walker River into the Carson Sink approximately 2,100 years ago. Also, this research found no evidence that the Walker Lake basin contained water during the Lake Lahontan highstand, although based on the surface elevation of the highstand evidenced elsewhere in the region it must have.</p><br>
<p>Walker Lake is the namesake of the geological trough in which it sits, and which extends from Oregon to Death Valley and beyond, the Walker Lane. It was named after Joseph R. Walker, a mountain man who scouted the area with John C. Frémont in the 1840s.</p><br>
<p>The area around the lake has long been inhabited by the Paiute. Beginning in the mid-19th century the introduction of agriculture upstream of Walker Lake has resulted in the water from the Walker River and its tributaries being diverted for irrigation. These diversions have resulted in a severe drop in the level of the lake. Upstream water users have exploited the Walker River for profit, resulting in the destruction of Walker Lake. According to the USGS, the level dropped approximately 181 ft between 1882 and 2016. By June, 2016, the lake level was 3,909 feet above sea level. This is the lowest lake elevation since measurement began in 1882.</p><br>
<p>The lower level of the lake has resulted in a higher concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS). As of the spring of 2016, the TDS concentration had reached 26 g/L, well above the lethal limit for most of the native fish species throughout much of the lake. Lahontan cutthroat trout no longer occur in the lake and recent work by researchers indicates that the lakes Tui chub have declined dramatically and may soon disappear as the salinity levels are lethal to Tui chub eggs and young chubs. The decline of the lakes fishery is having a dramatic impact on the species of birds using the lake. By 2009, the town of Hawthorne canceled its Loon Festival because the lake, once a major stopover point for migratory loons, could no longer provide enough chub and other small fish to attract many loons.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation efforts</h2><br>
<p>USA Senator Harry Reid authored legislation (Public Law 107-171, enacted May 13, 2002) that established the Desert Terminal Lakes Program. The legislation provided $200 million to the USA Bureau of Reclamation "to provide water to at-risk natural desert terminal lakes" but prohibited leasing or purchasing water rights.</p><br>
<p>A series of subsequent modifications have specifically directed funding for the acquisition of water rights from willing sellers to benefit Walker Lake, including Public Law 108-7, enacted February 20, 2003, specified that funding was to be used to provide water and assistance only for Pyramid, Summit, and Walker lakes in the state of Nevada.</p><br>
<p>Public Law 109-103, enacted November 19, 2005, allocated $95 million, as follows:</p><br>
<p>• $70 million to the University of Nevada to 1) acquire from willing sellers land, water appurtenant to the land, and related interests in the Walker River Basin, and 2) to establish and administer an agricultural and natural resources center to undertake research, restoration, and educational activities in the Walker River Basin</p><br>
<p>• $10 million for a water lease and purchase program for the Walker River Paiute Tribe</p><br>
<p>• $10 million for tamarisk eradication, riparian area restoration, and channel restoration efforts within the Walker River Basin to enhance water delivery to Walker Lake; and</p><br>
<p>• $5 million to the USA Fish and Wildlife Service, the Walker River Paiute Tribe, and the Nevada Department of Wildlife to complete the design and implementation of the Western Inland Trout Initiative and Fishery Improvements in the State of Nevada with an emphasis on the Walker River Basin.</p><br>
<p>Public Law 110-161, enacted December 26, 2007, allocated $68.25 million, as follows:</p><br>
<p>• $2.5 million to the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to analyze the impacts of low water flows on reproduction at the Walker Lake fishery, including an analysis of methods to prevent permanent effects on the fishery from low water flows</p><br>
<p>• $4 million to the State of Nevada to prepare watershed inventories, with a particular focus on the Walker and Carson River Basins</p><br>
<p>• $500,000 for the Walker River Paiute Tribe for legal and professional services in support of settling tribal water claims in the Walker River Basin and to Walker Lake</p><br>
<p>Public Law 110-234, Section 2807, enacted May 22, 2008, appropriated an additional $175 million, “to provide water to at-risk natural desert terminal lakes.“ It also specifies that when there are willing sellers, the funding can be used:</p><br>
<p>• To lease water; and</p><br>
<p>• To purchase land, water appurtenant to the land, and related interests in the Walker River Basin.</p><br>
<p>Public Law 111-8, Sections 207 and 208, enacted March 11, 2009, made minor changes to previous allocations and added 2 allocations to be funded from the original $200 million appropriation:</p><br>
<p>• $300,000 to the Desert Research Institute for LIDAR acquisition data in the Walker River Basin</p><br>
<p>• $300,000 to the USA Fish and Wildlife Service to assess and monitor the ability of west central Nevada lakes to support migratory loons, and identification of wintering areas and annual range of loons using Walker Lake during migration.</p><br>
<p>Public Law 111-85, Sections 206 through 208, enacted October 28, 2009, modified previous Desert Terminal Lake legislation and allocated $80.7 million, including:</p><br>
<p>• $66,200,000 to establish the Walker Basin Restoration Program, to be administered by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation</p><br>
<p>• $1 million to the USA Geological Survey for Walker River Basin water monitoring program</p><br>
<p>The National Fish and Wildlife Foundation has been acquiring water rights to benefit the lake and has submitted applications to the Nevada State Engineer to transfer the water downstream to benefit the lake. There are numerous protests and the State Engineer held hearings on the applications in July 2013. In 2016, the Flying-M Ranch was acquired by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. The purchase price was $19.4 million.</p><br>
<h2>Additional background</h2><br>
<p>The Walker Lake State Recreation Area now known as Monument Beach, is located along the western shore of the lake. The Hawthorne Army Depot, the world&#39;s largest ammunition depot, fills the valley to the south of the lake. USA Route 95 passes along the western shore of Walker Lake.</p><br>
<p>The Uluburun Shipwreck is a Late Bronze Age shipwreck dated to the late 14th century BC, discovered close to the east shore of Uluburun , and about 6 miles southeast of Kaş, in south-western Turkey. The shipwreck was discovered in the summer of 1982 by Mehmed Çakir, a local sponge diver from Yalıkavak, a village near Bodrum.</p><br>
<p>Eleven consecutive campaigns of three to four months&#39; duration took place from 1984 to 1994 totaling 22,413 dives, revealing one of the most spectacular Late Bronze Age assemblages to have emerged from the Mediterranean Sea</p><br>
<h2>Discovery</h2><br>
<p>The shipwreck site was discovered in the summer of 1982 due to Mehmet Çakir’s sketching of “the metal biscuits with ears” recognized as oxhide ingots. Turkish sponge divers were often consulted by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology&#39;s (INA) survey team on how to identify ancient wrecks while diving for sponges. Çakir’s findings urged Oğuz Alpözen, Director of the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, to send out an inspection team of the Museum and INA archaeologists to locate the wreck site. The inspection team was able to locate several amounts of copper ingots just 50 metres from the shore of Uluburun.</p><br>
<h3>Apparent route</h3><br>
<p>With the evidence provided from the cargo on the ship it can be assumed that the ship set sail from either a Cypriot or Syro-Palestinian port. The Uluburun ship was undoubtedly sailing to the region west of Cyprus, but her ultimate destination can be concluded only from the distribution of objects matching the types carried on board. It has been proposed that ship’s destination was a port somewhere in the Aegean Sea. Rhodes, at the time an important redistribution centre for the Aegean, has been suggested as a possible destination. According to the excavators of the shipwreck, the probable final destination of the ship was one of the Mycenaean palaces, in mainland Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Dating</h3><br>
<p>Peter Kuniholm of Cornell University was assigned the task of dendrochronological dating in order to obtain an absolute date for the ship. The results date the wood at 1305 BC, but given that no bark has survived it is impossible to determine an exact date and it can be assumed that the ship sank sometime after that date. Based on ceramic evidence, it appears that the Uluburun sank toward the end of the Amarna period, but could not have sunk before the time of Nefertiti due to the unique gold scarab engraved with her name found aboard the ship. For now, a conclusion that the ship sank at the end of the 14th century BC is accepted.</p><br>
<p>The origins of the objects aboard the ship range geographically from northern Europe to Africa, as far west as Sicily and Sardinia, and as far east as Mesopotamia. They appear to be the products of nine or ten cultures. These proveniences indicate that the Late Bronze Age Aegean was the medium of an international trade perhaps based on royal gift-giving in the Near East.</p><br>
<p>According to a reconstruction by various scholars, the Uluburun shipwreck illustrates a thriving commercial sea network of the Late Bronze Age Mediterranean. In this case, a huge mixed cargo of luxury items, royal gifts and raw materials. According to the findings, it has been suggested that Mycenaean officials were also aboard accompanying the gifts.</p><br>
<h2>The vessel</h2><br>
<p>The distribution of the wreckage and the scattered cargo indicates that the ship was between 15 and 16 meters long. It was constructed by the shell-first method, with mortise-and-tenon joints similar to those of the Graeco-Roman ships of later centuries.</p><br>
<p>Even though there has been a detailed examination of Uluburun’s hull, there is no evidence of framing. The keel appears to be rudimentary, perhaps more of a keel-plank than a keel in the traditional sense. The ship was built with planks and keel of Lebanese cedar and oak tenons. Lebanese cedar is indigenous to the mountains of Lebanon, southern Turkey, and central Cyprus.</p><br>
<p>The ship carried 24 stone anchors. The stone is of a type almost completely unknown in the Aegean, but is often built into the temples of Syria-Palestine and on Cyprus. Brushwood and sticks served as dunnage to help protect the ship’s planks from the metal ingots and other heavy cargo.</p><br>
<h2>Cargo</h2><br>
<p>The Uluburun ship’s cargo consisted mostly of raw materials that were trade items, which before the ship’s discovery were known primarily from ancient texts or Egyptian tomb paintings. The cargo matches many of the royal gifts listed in the Amarna letters found at El-Amarna, Egypt.</p><br>
<p>Copper and tin ingots</p><br>
<p>Raw copper cargo totaling ten tons, consisting of a total of 354 ingots of the oxhide (rectangular with handholds extending from each corner) type.</p><br>
<p>Out of the total amount of ingots at least 31 unique two-handled ingots were identified that were most likely shaped this way to assist the process of loading ingots onto specially designed saddles or harnesses for ease of transport over long distances by pack animals.</p><br>
<p>121 copper bun and oval ingots.</p><br>
<p>The oxhide ingots were originally stowed in 4 distinct rows across the ship’s hold, which either slipped down the slope after the ship sank or shifted as the hull settled under the weight of the cargo.</p><br>
<p>Approximately one ton of tin (when alloyed with the copper would make about 11 tons of bronze).</p><br>
<p>Tin ingots were oxhide and bun shaped.</p><br>
<p>Canaanite jars and Pistacia resin</p><br>
<p>At least 149 Canaanite jars (widely found in Greece, Cyprus, Syria-Palestine, and Egypt).</p><br>
<p>Jars are categorized as the northern type and were most likely made somewhere in the northern part of modern-day Israel.</p><br>
<p>One jar filled with glass beads, many filled with olives, but the majority contained a substance known as Pistacia (terebinth) resin, an ancient type of turpentine.</p><br>
<p>Recent clay fabric analyses of Canaanite jar sherds from the 18th-Dynasty site of Tell el-Amarna have produced a specific clay fabric designation, and it is seemingly the same as that from the Uluburun shipwreck, of a type that is exclusively associated in Amarna with transporting Pistacia resin.</p><br>
<p>Glass ingots</p><br>
<p>Approximately 175 glass ingots of cobalt blue turquoise and lavender were found (earliest intact glass ingots known).</p><br>
<p>Chemical composition of cobalt blue glass ingots matches those of contemporary Egyptian core-formed vessels and Mycenaean pendant beads, which suggests a common source.</p><br>
<p>Miscellaneous cargo</p><br>
<p>Logs of blackwood from Africa (referred to as ebony by the Egyptians)</p><br>
<p>Ivory in the form of whole and partial hippopotamus and elephant tusks</p><br>
<p>More than a dozen hippopotamus teeth</p><br>
<p>Tortoise carapaces (upper shells)</p><br>
<p>Murex opercula (possible ingredient for incense)</p><br>
<p>Ostrich eggshells</p><br>
<p>Cypriot pottery</p><br>
<p>Cypriot oil lamps</p><br>
<p>Bronze and copper vessels (four faience drinking cups shaped as rams’ heads and one shaped as a woman’s head)</p><br>
<p>Two duck-shaped ivory cosmetics boxes</p><br>
<p>Ivory cosmetics or unguent spoon</p><br>
<p>Trumpet</p><br>
<p>More than two dozen sea-shell rings</p><br>
<p>Beads of amber (Baltic origin)</p><br>
<p>Agate</p><br>
<p>Carnelian</p><br>
<p>Quartz</p><br>
<p>Gold</p><br>
<p>Faience</p><br>
<p>Glass</p><br>
<p>Jewelry, gold, and silver</p><br>
<p>Collection of usable and scrap gold and silver Canaanite jewelry</p><br>
<p>Among the 37 gold pieces are: pectorals, medallions, pendants, beads, a small ring ingot, and an assortment of fragments</p><br>
<p>Biconical chalice (largest gold object from wreck)</p><br>
<p>Egyptian objects of gold, electrum, silver, and steatite (soap stone)</p><br>
<p>Gold scarab inscribed with the name of Nefertiti</p><br>
<p>Bronze female figurine (head, neck, hands, and feet covered in sheet gold)</p><br>
<p>Weapons and tools</p><br>
<p>Arrowheads</p><br>
<p>Spearheads</p><br>
<p>Maces</p><br>
<p>Daggers</p><br>
<p>Lugged shaft-hole axe</p><br>
<p>A single armor scale of Near Eastern type</p><br>
<p>Four swords (Canaanite, Mycenaean, and Italian(?) types)</p><br>
<p>Large number of tools: sickles, awls, drill bits, a saw, a pair of tongs, chisels, axes, a ploughshare, whetstones, and adzes</p><br>
<p>Pan-balance weights</p><br>
<p>19 zoomorphic weights (Uluburun weight assemblage is one of the largest and most complete groups of contemporaneous Late Bronze Age weights)</p><br>
<p>120 geometric-shaped weights</p><br>
<p>Edibles</p><br>
<p>Almonds</p><br>
<p>Pine nuts</p><br>
<p>Figs</p><br>
<p>Olives</p><br>
<p>Grapes</p><br>
<p>Safflower</p><br>
<p>Black cumin</p><br>
<p>Sumac</p><br>
<p>Coriander</p><br>
<p>Whole pomegranates</p><br>
<p>A few grains of charred wheat and barley</p><br>
<h2>Excavation</h2><br>
<p>The Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA) began excavating in July 1984 under the direction of its founder, George F. Bass, and was then turned over to INA’s Vice President for Turkey, Cemal Pulak, who directed the excavation from 1985 to 1994. The wreck lay between 44 and 52 meters deep on a steep, rocky slope riddled with sand pockets. Half of the staff members who aided in the excavation lived in a camp built into the southeastern face of the promontory, which the ship most likely hit, while the other half lived aboard the Virazon, INA’s research vessel at the time. The excavation site utilized an underwater telephone booth and air-lifts. The mapping of the site was done by triangulation. Meter tapes and metal squares were used as an orientation aid for excavators. Since the completion of the excavation in September 1994, all efforts have been concentrated on full-time conservation, study, and sampling for analysis in the conservation laboratory of the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology in Turkey.</p><br>
<p>Barr Beacon is a hill on the edge of Walsall, West Midlands, England, very near the border with Birmingham. It gives its name to nearby Great Barr  and to the local secondary school Barr Beacon School. It is historically the site of a beacon where fires were lit in times of impending attack or on celebratory occasions. The site is on green belt land and is of local importance for nature conservation, as defined by Walsall Borough Council, who have designated some 60 acres  of it as a Local Nature Reserve.</p><br>
<h2>Ownership and management</h2><br>
<p>Barr Beacon was formerly owned by the Scott family of Great Barr Hall, nearby. Following the death of Lady Mildred Scott in 1909, the estate was auctioned off in 1918. Birmingham&#39;s Lord Mayor made a plea for the site to be secured as a public park. with a management committee comprising local councillors and representatives of interest groups. During both 2002 and 2003 the site attracted an estimated 200,000 visitors.</p><br>
<h2>Views</h2><br>
<p>As one of the highest points in the West Midlands, Barr Beacon has panoramic views. According to the Walsall Council website, visible landmarks include The Wrekin, Cannock Chase, the Lickey Hills, Lichfield Cathedral, Aldridge Airport, and Birmingham city centre, and at least eleven counties are visible, including Powys in Wales.</p><br>
<h2>Memorial</h2><br>
<p>On one summit is Barr Beacon Reservoir, a South Staffordshire Waterworks Company covered drinking water reservoir with radio masts and on the other a war memorial consisting of a raised dais, covered by a copper-clad wooden dome supported by eight columns. On the night of 5 March 2010, thieves stole some of the copper roofing, damaging much more in the process; this happened again twice in 2011. In early 2013, the copper sheeting was replaced using green zinc-coated panels, and CCTV was installed.</p><br>
<p>Psara  is a Greek island in the Aegean Sea. Together with the small island of Antipsara  it forms the municipality of Psara. It is part of the Chios regional unit, which is part of the North Aegean region. The only town of the island and seat of the municipality is also called Psara.</p><br>
<p>Psara had 448 inhabitants according to the 2011 census. It has a small port linking to the island of Chios and other parts of Greece.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Psara lies 44 nmi northwest of Chios, 22 km from the northwestern point of the island of Chios and 150 km eastnortheast of Athens. The length and width are about 7 by and the area of the island is 43 km². The highest point of the island is "Profitis Ilias" (512 m). The municipality has an area of 44.511 km.</p><br>
<h2>Flag</h2><br>
<p>The flag of Psara was designed by the Psariots It is made of white cloth bordered with red with a large red cross and the inscriptions of the name of the island "ΨΑ-ΡΑ" and the words Eleftheria i Thanatos (Liberty or Death) in capital red letters. The cross is standing on an upside down crescent, flanked on one side by a sword, on the other by a serpent killed by a bird. The flag was carried during the War of Independence by Psariot ships</p><br>
<p>An original flag of Psara, is preserved at the National Historical Museum of Greece</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>It has been inhabited since the Mycenaean period, its inhabitants relying on the sea to make a living as the island is treeless and rocky with little shrubbery. Homer first referred to the island as Psyra. The islanders&#39; sole source of livelihood has always been fishing, mainly for the locally abundant slipper lobsters, and shipping, with some tourist development in recent years.</p><br>
<h2>Destruction of Psara</h2><br>
<p>Psara joined the Greek War of Independence on April 10, 1821. A noted native naval leader of the time was future Prime Minister of Greece Constantine Kanaris and Dimitrios Papanikolis. The island was invaded on June 21, 1824 by the Ottoman navy.</p><br>
<p>On July 4 the resistance of the Psariots ended with a last stand at the towns old fort of Palaiokastro (alternative name Mavri Rachi, literally "black ridge"). Hundreds of soldiers and also women and children had taken refuge there when a Turkish force of 2000 stormed the fort. The refugees first threw a white flag with the words "Ἐλευθερία ἤ Θάνατος" ("Eleftheria i Thanatos", "Freedom or Death"). Then, the moment the Turks entered the fort, the local Antonios Vratsanos lit a fuse to the gunpowder stock, in an explosion that killed the towns inhabitants along with their enemies &mdash; thus remaining faithful to their flag to their death. A French officer who heard and saw the explosion compared it to a volcanic eruption of Vesuvius.</p><br>
<p>A part of the population managed to flee the island, but those who did not were either sold into slavery or killed. As a result of the invasion, thousands of Greeks have met a tragic fate. The island was deserted and surviving islanders were scattered through what is now Southern Greece. Theophilos Kairis, a priest and scholar, took on many of the orphaned children and developed the famous school the Orphanotropheio of Theophilos Kairis. Psara remained in the hands of the Ottomans until it was recaptured by the Greek navy on 21 October 1912 during the First Balkan War.</p><br>
<p>The destruction of Psara by the Ottoman Turks was conducted in retaliation for blowing up the ship of a Turkish Admiral by the revolutionary Dimitrios Papanikolis (who was from Psara). It inspired the poet Andreas Kalvos to write the ode "To Psara" (Greek: "Εἰς Ψαρά"); perhaps more famously, the event also inspired the poet Dionysios Solomos &mdash; the author of the Hymn to Liberty &mdash; to write in 1825 a poem (or epigram) about it called "The Destruction of Psara" (Greek: "Ἡ καταστροφὴ τῶν Ψαρῶν"): At the Anemi digital library.</p><br>
<p>&#39;Στῶν Ψαρῶν τὴν ὁλόμαυρη ράχη</p><br>
<p>Περπατῶντας ἡ Δόξα μονάχη.</p><br>
<p>Μελετᾷ τὰ λαμπρὰ παλληκάρια,</p><br>
<p>Καὶ &#39;ς τὴν κόμη στεφάνι φορεῖ</p><br>
<p>Γινομένο ἀπὸ λίγα χορτάρια</p><br>
<p>Ποῦ εἰχαν μείνῃ &#39;ς τὴν ἔρημη γῆ.</p><br>
<p>On the all-black ridge of Psara</p><br>
<p>Glory walks by herself taking in</p><br>
<p>the bright young men on the war field</p><br>
<p>the crown of her hair wound</p><br>
<p>from the last few grasses left</p><br>
<p>on the desolate earth.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Constantine Kanaris (1793/1795-1877) admiral and politician, Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Dimitrios Papanikolis, admiral</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Varvakis (1745-1825), admiral, caviar merchant and benefactor.</p><br>
<p>Jackson Lake is in Grand Teton National Park in northwestern Wyoming. This natural lake was enlarged by the construction of the Jackson Lake Dam, which was originally built in 1911, enlarged in 1916 and rebuilt by 1989. The top 33 ft of the lake is utilized by farmers in Idaho for irrigation purposes. The lake is the remnant of large glacial gouging from the neighboring Teton Range to the west and the Yellowstone Plateau to the north. The lake is primarily fed by the Snake River, which flows in from the north, and empties at Jackson Lake Dam. Jackson Lake is one of the largest high altitude lakes in the United States, at an elevation of 6,772 ft above sea level. The lake is up to 15 mi long, 7 mi wide and 438 ft deep. The water of the lake averages below 60 &deg;F, even during the summer.</p><br>
<p>Numerous species of fish inhabit the lake including nonnative brown and lake trout and the native Snake River fine-spotted cutthroat trout and mountain whitefish.</p><br>
<p>There are over 15 islands in the lake, including the largest, Elk Island, and Donoho Point.</p><br>
<p>John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway is located near the northern end of Jackson Lake and extends to the south entrance of Yellowstone National Park. This roadway combines with the roads in Grand Teton National Park that follow the eastern side of the lake, and provides access for boating and fishing. There are several marinas and lodges along the eastern shore such as Leeks marina, Colter Bay Village, Jackson Lake Lodge and Signal Mountain Lodge. All of these except Jackson Lake Lodge have boat access points and ramps. The western shore of Jackson Lake is primitive, with only hiking trails and a handful of primitive campground spots.</p><br>
<p>Wellington Harbour is the large natural harbour on the southern tip of New Zealand&#39;s North Island. New Zealand&#39;s capital city, Wellington, is located on its western side. The harbour, the sea area bounded by a line between Pencarrow Head to Petone foreshore, was officially named Port Nicholson, until it assumed its current name in 1984.</p><br>
<p>In the Māori language the harbour is known as Te Whanganui-a-Tara the great harbour of Tara. Another Māori name for Wellington, Pōneke, is said to be a transliteration of Port Nick (Port Nicholson).</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Wellington Harbour is an arm of Cook Strait, covering some 76 km², with a two-km wide entrance at its southern end between Pencarrow Head and Palmer Head on the tip of Miramar Peninsula. It has a maximum length of over 11 kilometres and a width of 9.25 kilometres. The harbour has an entrance over 1.6 kilometres wide from shore to shore and as it is surrounded by hills over 300 meters high, it provides sheltered anchorage in a region where wind velocities may exceed 160 k.p.h. The depth of water over the great bulk of the harbour exceeds 20 metres or 10 fathoms.</p><br>
<p>The harbour is of seismic origin, and a major earthquake fault lies along its western shore. At the northern end of the harbour lies the narrow triangular plain of the Hutt River, which largely follows the line of the earthquake fault to the north-east. The city of Lower Hutt is located on this plain.</p><br>
<p>The central city suburbs spread around the hills overlooking the west and south-west of Wellington Harbour and its two large bays: Lambton Harbour and Evans Bay. Lambton Harbour is surrounded by the reclaimed land of Wellingtons central business district and contains the majority of the citys port facilities. Evans Bay is an inlet between Mt Victoria and the Miramar Peninsula that serves as a flight path to low-lying Wellington Airport. Another smaller but popular bay, for its beaches and Cafes is Oriental Bay.</p><br>
<p>To the east of the harbour lie several small bays, most of which are populated by small coastal communities. The largest of these suburban settlements is Eastbourne, directly to the east of the northern tip of the Miramar Peninsula.</p><br>
<p>Three small islands are located in the harbour. To the south, close to Eastbourne, is Makaro / Ward Island Further north, close to the centre of the harbour, is the larger Matiu / Somes Island, to the north of which is the tiny Mokopuna Island</p><br>
<p>The entrance to the harbour can be quite dangerous, especially since Cook Strait to the south is notoriously rough. Close to the harbours entrance lies Barrett Reef, its rocks breaking the waters surface at low tide. It was here in 1968 that the inter-island passenger ferry Wahine grounded during a storm, with the loss of 51 lives.</p><br>
<h2>Early history</h2><br>
<h3>Earlier names of Wellington Harbour</h3><br>
<p>Wellington Harbour and its waterfront have gone by many names.</p><br>
<p>The earliest known name for Wellington city, derived from Maori legend, is Te Upoko o te Ika a Maui or "the head of Maui&#39;s fish".</p><br>
<p>http://www.newzealand.com/travel/media/features/maori-culture/maori-culture_wellingtons-maori-history.cfm</p><br>
<p>Te Whanganui a Tara is another name Maori gave the area – a name said to come from Whatonga&#39;s son Tara, whom his father sent down from the Mahia Peninsula to explore southern lands for their people to settle. It literally means "the great harbour of Tara".</p><br>
<p>Port Nicholson allegedly received its name from Captain James Herd, who sailed into the Harbour of Tara in 1826 and left it with its first European name, calling it after Sydney&#39;s Harbourmaster Captain John Nicholson.</p><br>
<p>http://www.newzealand.com/travel/media/features/maori-culture/maori-culture_wellingtons-maori-history.cfm</p><br>
<p>Colonel William Wakefield allegedly named Lambton Harbour in 1839 in honour of the Earl of Durham, who had the family name of "Lambton".</p><br>
<h3>Reclamation of Wellington Harbour</h3><br>
<p>To increase the amount of usable flat land for Wellington city, the reclamation of Wellington Harbour started in the 1850s.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Wellington Harbour is a significant port serving the lower North Island, with the Regional Council-owned company Centreport recording around 14,000 commercial shipping movements each year. Wellington Harbour. The region&#39;s third largest container port is located in Wellington City proper and there is a tanker terminal at Seaview, in Lower Hutt. Wellington harbour ferries first began operating at the end of the 19th century and regular crossings from central Wellington to Days Bay continue today. The harbour is also used by inter-island ferries, linking Wellington to Picton.A project to develop a walking and cycling route around the harbour, the, is gathering momentum.</p><br>
<h2>Basin Reserve</h2><br>
<h2>Evans Bay Patent Slip</h2><br>
<p>Magnesia or Magnesia on the Maeander  was an ancient Greek city in Ionia, considerable in size, at an important location commercially and strategically in the triangle of Priene, Ephesus and Tralles. The city was named Magnesia, after the Magnetes from Thessaly who settled the area along with some Cretans. It was later called "on the Meander" to distinguish it from the nearby Lydian city Magnesia ad Sipylum.</p><br>
<p>The territory around Magnesia was extremely fertile, and produced excellent wine, figs, and cucumbers. It was built on the slope of Mount Thorax, on the banks of the small river Lethacus, a tributary of the Maeander river upstream from Ephesus. It was 15 miles from the city of Miletus. The ruins of the city are located west of the modern village Tekin in the Germencik district of Aydın Province, Turkey.</p><br>
<p>Magnesia lay within Ionia, but because it had been settled by Aeolians from Greece, was not accepted into the Ionian League. Magnesia may have been ruled for a time by the Lydians, and was for some time under the control of the Persians, and subject to Cimmerian raids. In later years, Magnesia supported the Romans in the Second Mithridatic War.</p><br>
<h2>General history</h2><br>
<p>Magnesia soon attained great power and prosperity, so as to be able to cope even with a challenge from Ephesus. However, the city was taken and destroyed by the Cimmerians, some time between 726 BC and 660 BC. The deserted site was soon reoccupied, and rebuilt by the Milesians or, according to Athenaeus, by the Ephesians. The Persian satraps of Lydia also occasionally resided in the place.</p><br>
<p>In the fifth century BC, the exiled Athenian Themistocles came to Persia to offer his services to Artaxerxes, and was given control of Magnesia to support his family.</p><br>
<p>The name "magnet" may come from lodestones found in Magnesia.</p><br>
<p>In the time of the Romans, Magnesia was added to the kingdom of Pergamus, after Antiochus had been driven eastward beyond Mount Taurus. After this time the town seems to have declined and is rarely mentioned, though it is still noticed by Pliny and Tacitus. Hierocles ranks it among the bishoprics of the province of Asia, and later documents seem to imply that at one time it bore the name of Maeandropolis. The existence of the town in the time of the emperors Aurelius and Gallienus is attested to by coins.</p><br>
<h3>Landmarks</h3><br>
<p>Magnesia contained a temple of Dindymene, the mother of the gods; the wife or daughter of Themistocles was said to have been a priestess of that divinity.</p><br>
<p>Strabo later noted the temple no longer existed, the town having been transferred to another place. The change in the site of the town alluded to by Strabo, is not noticed by other contemporary authors, however some suggest that Magnesia was moved from the banks of the Meander to a place at the foot of Mount Thorax three miles from the river.</p><br>
<p>The new town which Strabo saw was remarkable for its temple of Artemis Leucophryene, which in size and the number of its treasures was surpassed by the temple of Ephesus, but in beauty and the harmony of its parts was superior to all the temples in Asia Minor. The temple to Artemis is said by Vitruvius to have been built by the architect Hermogenes, in the Ionic style. Following a theophany of the goddess Artemis in the 3rd century B.C., the temple and the city were recognised as a place of asylia by other Greek states.</p><br>
<p>Little remains of either temple today. The site of Magnesia on the Maeander was once identified with the modern Güzelhisar; since then the ruins of a temple to Artemis were found at Inck-bazar, and the latter is considered a more likely site.</p><br>
<h2>Modern excavations</h2><br>
<p>The first excavations at the archaeological site were performed during 1891 and 1893 by a German archaeological team conducted by Carl Humann, discoverer of the Pergamon Altar. These lasted 21 months and partially revealed the theatre, the Artemis temple, the agora, the Zeus temple and the prytaneion. Excavations were resumed at the site, after an interval of almost 100 years, in 1984, by Orhan Bingöl of the University of Ankara and.</p><br>
<p>Findings from the site are now displayed in Istanbul and Aydın, as well as in Berlin and Paris. Copies of the portico (pronaos) of the Zeus temple and of a bay of the Artemis temple can be visited in the Pergamonmuseum in Berlin. Much of the architectural remains of Magnesia were destroyed long ago by local lime burners. The well preserved remains of the Zeus temple have been destroyed by local residents even after Humann&#39;s excavation campaign.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Bathycles (6th century BC) Greek sculptor</p><br>
<p>Themistocles of Athens spent his final years and was buried here</p><br>
<h2>Sources</h2><br>
<p>Carl Humann: Magnesia am Maeander. Bericht über die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen der Jahre 1891–1893. Berlin: Reimer, 1904</p><br>
<p>Volker Kästner: Der Tempel des Zeus Sosipolis von Magnesia am Mäander, in: Brigitte Knittlmayer and Wolf-Dieter Heilmeyer: Die Antikensammlung, Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 1998, p. 230-231</p><br>
<p>Johannes Althoff: Ein Meister des Verwirklichens. Der Archäologe Theodor Wiegand, in: Peter Behrens, Theodor Wiegand und die Villa in Dahlem. Klaus Rheidt and Barbara A. Lutz (ed.), Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2004, p. 151</p><br>
<h2>Literary references</h2><br>
<p>Magnesia on the Maeander is the location for the historical mystery novel The Ionia Sanction, by Gary Corby, set during the last days of Themistocles.</p><br>
<p>The Petitcodiac River, known informally as the Chocolate River, is a Canadian river in south-eastern New Brunswick. The river has a meander length of 79 km and is located in Westmorland, Albert, and Kings counties, draining a watershed area of about 2,071 km&sup2;. The watershed features valleys, ridges, and rolling hills, and is home to a diverse population of terrestrial and aquatic species. Ten named tributaries join the river in its course toward its mouth in Shepody Bay. Before the construction of a causeway in 1968, the river had one of the world&#39;s largest tidal bores, which ranged from 1 to 2 m in height and moved at 5 to 13 km/h. With the opening of the causeway gates in April 2010, the river is flushing itself of ocean silts, and the Bore is returning to its former glory.</p><br>
<p>The Mikmaq were the first to settle near the river, and used it as part of a portage route between Shubenacadie and the village of Petitcodiac, where they had a winter camp. Acadians from Port Royal, Nova Scotia colonised the region in 1698, but were expelled in 1755 during the Seven Years War. Acadian resistance fighters in Village-des-Blanchard (now Hillsborough) fought under the command of French leader Charles Deschamps de Boishébert in the Battle of Petitcodiac to fend off British troops and suffered the destruction of most of their settlement. The British troops revisited the river three years later and conducted the Petitcodiac River Campaign. In the 1840s, the Greater Moncton area saw a shipbuilding boom, but this was halted following the arrival of the steam train, and forced the town to unincorporate. These changes eventually marginalised the Petitcodiac River.</p><br>
<p>In 1968, a controversial rock-and-earth fill causeway was built between Moncton and Riverview to prevent agricultural flooding and to carry a crossing between the two communities. The causeway caused many problems for the river and its surrounding ecosystem. An estimated 10 million cubic metres (13 million cubic yards) of silt was deposited in the 4.7 km (2.9 mi) of river downstream from the causeway in the first three years following construction. The causeway restricted the movement of fish and reduced the regions salmon catches by 82 percent. Water quality has also dropped thanks to industrial expansion around the area. In 2003, Earthwild International designated the Petitcodiac River as the most endangered river in Canada because of these problems. On 14 April 2010, the causeways gates were opened permanently as part of a $68 million three-phase project designed to restore the river, to be completed by 2015.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>A popular belief suggests that the name derives from the French term "petit coude", meaning "little elbow". In fact, the name derives from an indigenous word, probably Maliseet or, possibly Mikmaq. According to Maliseet Elder and linguist Dr. Peter Paul of Woodstock Reserve, the name refers to a wall of water rushing in: "now they call that petakuyak. means sound of thunder, well, the rush of water coming in like a thunderstorm." If the term has a Mikmaq origin, it could have been derived from the word Petkootkweăk, meaning "the river that bends like a bow", a reference to the right angle bend near Moncton. Acadians transformed this to Petcoudiac or Petitcoudiac, which was modified to Petitcodiac by British settlers. The river&#39;s heavy sedimentation led to the nickname "Chocolate River", due to the resulting brown tint.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Course</h3><br>
<p>The river measures about 79 km from its source near Petitcodiac to its mouth at Shepody Bay; its source derives from the confluence of the Anagance and North rivers in western Westmorland County. while the North River drains 264 km&sup2; from the north. From the confluence, the river passes under the bridge on Route 106 in Petitcodiac, The road then follows the river to Moncton on the left side of the river. As the waterway runs past Salisbury, its final major right tributary, Little River (formerly known as Coverdale River), The river passes Coverdale and is joined by Turtle Creek before widening as it approaches Moncton.</p><br>
<p>The causeway, built in 1968, formed a wall blocking all but 100 m of water as the river flowed downstream toward the Gunningsville Bridge. Before the causeways construction, the rivers area would expand through Moncton, attaining a width of 1.6 km (one mile). a feature that gave Moncton its original name, Le Coude (The Elbow). The river passes Dieppe on its eastern side and Hillsborough on its western side before it approaches its mouth.</p><br>
<p>The Memramcook River, which has a watershed area of 412 km&sup2; joins the Petitcodiac River near its mouth. The Petitcodiac River then widens and drains into Shepody Bay, where there is a 122 km&sup2; wetland. Once past the Hopewell Rocks, Shepody Bay merges with the Cumberland Basin, which runs south-west toward Chignecto Bay.</p><br>
<h3>Watershed</h3><br>
<p>The Petitcodiac River watershed is about 2,071 km&sup2;. The average yearly precipitation in the watershed is 1,100 mm, with average temperatures of 17.5 &deg;C in the summer and -7.5 &deg;C in the winter. The watershed is located in the Kings, Westmorland, and Albert counties in south-east New Brunswick, with some of it crossing into the Caledonian Highlands to the south-east. It borders the Bay of Fundy and three other designated watersheds in the province: the lower Saint John River to the north-west, the Shediac Bay to the north-east, and the Kennebecasis River to the south. Although the Petitcodiac River&#39;s watershed is geographically distinct from that of the nearby Memramcook River, some groups merge the two for categorisational purposes.</p><br>
<p>The area has been occupied by Europeans since the late 17th century. In spite of this growth, most of the area remains relatively undisturbed: 80 percent of the watershed is covered with forest, a tenth is used for agriculture and three percent is occupied by wetlands. Only four percent of the area is used for commercial, residential, or private usage. Nevertheless, the Petitcodiac Watershed Monitoring Group noted in 2001 that this growth is one of the main factors for the ongoing "environmental degradation" of the river.</p><br>
<h2>Hydrology</h2><br>
<h3>Water quality</h3><br>
<p>The Petitcodiac River was listed in 2003 as the most endangered river in Canada by Earthwild International, and was listed second, behind Quebecs Rupert River, in 2002. The causeway was cited as one of the major factors behind the rivers degraded health. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment&#39;s Water Quality Index gave two study sites an "excellent" rating, 20 sites a "good" rating, 27 sites a "fair" rating, and five sites a "marginal" rating.</p><br>
<p>Since 1999, the Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance (known as the Petitcodiac Watershed Monitoring Group at the time) has collected water samples from May to October to study bacteria, nutrient, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and sediment levels. Two sampling sites, one upstream from the causeway and one downstream, were used during the 2009 study. The river had an average temperature of 27 &deg;C in August at the upstream location, in contrast to the average of 20.1 &deg;C at the same site over the total period of the study. E. coli levels were high upstream, and above recreationally safe levels downstream in June, July, and August. Nitrates and phosphates failed to meet the safe quality threshold on occasion. A publication by the New Brunswick Department of Environment in 2007 showed that the watershed did not meet the quality guidelines for E. coli in 10 percent of samples, for dissolved oxygen in 5 percent of samples, and pH in 3 percent of samples; in contrast, the river was always within safe nitrate levels.</p><br>
<p>During their 2001 study, the Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance noted the effects of agriculture on the rivers water quality, and recommended to work with local farmers to install cattle fencing around streams which run through their properties, and "eventually phase out" cosmetic pesticide usage. The Petitcodiac Riverkeeper holds a stronger position on the issue: the organisation notes that pesticides "find their way into the surface and ground water by leaching into the soil or as part of stormwater runoff." They request that, while measures have been taken in 2009 by the provincial government to regulate cosmetic pesticide usage, the province must forbid its usage altogether and require chemical manufacturers to disclose health warnings and all ingredients on labels. The New Brunswick Department of Environment also warned of the erosion caused by the removal of the rivers riparian zones, which is a common "land use practice".</p><br>
<p>Although mining around the area essentially stopped with the closure of the gypsum mines in 1982, uranium mining has surfaced as a potential problem for the river. The province was the subject of a controversy in 2007 when it gave Vale Limited (formerly known as CVRD Inco) the right to mine for uranium at Turtle Creek, where the Greater Moncton water reservoir is maintained. Environmentalists warned of the dangers related to the move, fearing that contaminants could be pushed into the surrounding water. The Petitcodiac Riverkeeper also noted uranium mining&#39;s "irreversible effects to the health of ecosystems, watersheds, wildlife, agriculture, recreation, and public health", and joined 30 other environmental groups in asking the provincial government to establish a ban on the act. The province would later restrict uranium mining to 300 m from residential areas and ban it from protected drinking water areas. Another controversy in 2006 involved exploration for oil and gas deposits in the same area, but access was blocked by the municipal government.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after the building of the causeway, a 35 hectare landfill was built near the river. Various materials were disposed of in the area, including petroleum waste oil, pipe and foam insulation, sewage sludge, and medical waste. While the landfill was shut down in 1992, samples by the Environmental Bureau of Investigation and the Petitcodiac Riverkeeper showed that ammonium levels around the leachate exceeded Canadian quality guidelines by as much as 15 times, and contained heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons, and PCBs. A mortality rate of 100 percent was found for test trout and daphnia when exposed to water samples. Gemtec Limited, the company responsible for planning and closing the landfill, and the City of Moncton were charged on 12 March 2002, for offences relating to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (1999) and the Fisheries Act. The city pleaded guilty on 23 September 2003, paid a $35,000 fine, and was ordered to help reduce the leachate flow from the landfill. Three years later, Gemtec Limited was fined a total of $6,000 and was ordered to contribute a total of $22,000 to the federal Environmental Damages Fund and the Jonathan Creek Committee.</p><br>
<h3>Discharge</h3><br>
<p>The river aids in the drainage of ten significant bodies of water: Weldon Creek, Fox Creek, Mill Creek, Halls Creek, Jonathan Creek, Turtle Creek, Little River, Pollett River, Anagance River, and North River. A report in 2000 showed that it handles an average discharge of 27.3 m3/s at the causeway yearly, with a recorded high of 730 m3/s in 1962 and a low of 0.36 m3/s in 1966. The same report estimated mean values for the minimum and maximum discharges for every two-year, 10-year, and 100-year flood events, and minimum discharges for every two-year, five-year, and 100-year "drought" events:</p><br>
<h3>Tidal bore</h3><br>
<p>The Petitcodiac River tidal bores—retrograde waves moving upstream over downstream waves—occur twice a day and come from the world&#39;s highest tides in the Bay of Fundy. The first European mention of the bore was by British Lieutenant Colonel George Scott on 17 November 1758, during a downstream voyage from Moncton to Fort Frederick, near Saint John. The Admiralty referred to the tidal bore in a hydrographic chart published in 1861, observing that " its passage the rise of the tide is very rapid until high water is attained", and that " the Bore still appears but its broken front usually is only a few inches high."</p><br>
<p>The bores ranged from 1 to 2 m in height, with speeds from 5 to 13 km/h. In 1825, Peter Fisher noted that the "noise of the Bore is heard a great distance, and animals immediately take to the highland, and manifest visible signs of terror if near it." Before the causeway (1968), values were compared with the tidal bores of the Qiantang, Hooghly and Amazon rivers. After the causeway was built, the bores reached heights from about 5 to 75 cm.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Before the construction of the causeway, the Petitcodiac River was home to many aquatic species. Fish originally included hundreds of thousands of Atlantic tomcod and rainbow smelt, tens of thousands of gaspereau and American shad, thousands of American eel, Atlantic salmon, brook trout, lamprey, and striped bass and hundreds of Atlantic sturgeon. Other fish include the blueback herring, the brown bullhead, the chain pickerel, the smallmouth bass, the white perch, and the white sucker. Marine mammals were uncommon, but normally consisted of pilot whales, Atlantic white-sided dolphins, harbour porpoise, harbour seals, and porbeagles.</p><br>
<p>Six species have disappeared from the river since the mid-1980s. Three other species have been eliminated from the river: the striped bass, the Atlantic sturgeon, and the Atlantic tomcod. However, a project of the Petitcodiac Riverkeeper, funded by the Government of Canada&#39;s Environmental Damage Fund in 2005, noted that the removal of the causeway would result in a "good" chance of bringing back the eliminated species, and an "excellent" chance of increasing the numbers of species deemed to have been reduced in numbers. No data has been released for the Atlantic salmon or the striped bass.</p><br>
<p>Various insects and arachnids reside around the Petitcodiac River. Among them is the stonefly, the mayfly, the caddisfly, the simulium, the subfamily of tanypodinae, and the Hydracarina. Non-native species, such as the black-footed spider, the beech scale, the white-marked tussock moth, and the mountain ash sawfly have also made their home in the Petitcodiac River watershed. At the southern extremities of the watershed, 50 to 90 percent of the world&#39;s semipalmated sandpipers feed on the mud shrimp at Shepody Bay. Around 269,445 stop there before migrating to South America, a number which accounts for at least 7.7 percent of the total population. Among others, the semipalmated plover (around 2 percent of the North American population), the short-billed dowitcher, the red knot, the sanderling, and the least sandpiper are also known for migrating through the Important Bird Area.</p><br>
<p>A diverse number of plant species reside in the watershed as well. Red, white, and black spruce, red maple, white birch, and trembling aspen are the most common. Jack pine is commonly found in regions that fires have repeatedly ravished, while cedar is found in bogs and areas where gypsum and limestone are present. Higher altitude slopes and ridgetops house sugar maple, beech, and yellow birch trees. Zelazny et al. note that " high frequency of disturbed sites dominated by aspen stands reveals the degree of historical and recent human disturbance along the Petitcodiac River." Other trees, such as the tamarack and white pine, can also be found in the watershed. Plants such as the rufous bulrush tend to grow near calcareous areas, and hemlock can be found in small, pure stands. Alien plant species include the mother-of-thyme, the Japanese barberry, the Scotch broom, the yellow flag, and Canada bluegrass.</p><br>
<p>In 1937, the 37,000-year-old skeleton of a mastodon was discovered by workers near Hillsborough. It was in near perfect condition and was transported to the New Brunswick Museum in Saint John, where it has been displayed ever since.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Petitcodiac River watershed covers an area north and east of the Caledonian Highlands; a low-elevation (on average 67 m; 67 m) region with rolling hills, valleys, and ridges. In fact, most of the region was below sea level, beneath the former DeGeer and Goldthwait seas, during the quaternary period. Non-calcareous Pennsylvanian (and younger) sandstones, conglomerates, silt, and red- to grey-tinted mudstone now compose the majority of the bedrock. The northern shore of the Petitcodiac River, including the Anagance and North rivers, is primarily made up of shale with volcanic rocks, mixed igneous rocks, and felsic pebble conglomerates. The southern shore, including the Little and Pollett rivers, is composed of Precambrian or Lower-Palaeozoic sedimentary, igneous, and volcanic rocks, and limestone. Both shores include red to grey Mississippian sandstone.</p><br>
<p>The majority of the watershed&#39;s topsoil is composed of sand, clay, and silt, under which normally lies a layer of ablation moraines. Fairly rich soils made of alluvium and tidal deposits are found along the Petitcodiac and Memramcook rivers, and have often been exploited for agricultural purposes. A publication by the New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources notes that the soils in Salisbury, made from calcareous sandstone and mudstone, are fine-textured and, when properly drained, "are the most fertile glacial tills" in the watershed. In contrast, they note, soils deriving from local conglomerates are more coarse and sandy, and are less fertile.</p><br>
<p>Albertite, a type of asphalt, was first found in Albert County in 1849 by the Canadian geologist Abraham Gesner, inventor of kerosene. Over 200,000 tonnes of the mineral were shipped to Boston within 30 years. Large deposits of gypsum found eight kilometres (five miles) from the mining site were shipped around the globe as well. The Petitcodiac River was used as the primary means for transporting the minerals at the time.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Colonisation (1604–1698)</h3><br>
<p>The Petitcodiac River region was first settled by the Mikmaq, who used the rivers upstream current as part of a portage route between Shubenacadie and a winter camp at the confluence of the Anagance and North rivers. The first Europeans arrived in early 1604, when a French expedition to Acadia (now Nova Scotia and New Brunswick), led by the explorer Pierre Dugua de Mons and accompanied by cartographer Samuel de Champlain and future Acadian governor Jean de Biencourt, sailed into the Bay of Fundy. Hoping to find an ideal site for a settlement, they passed Advocate Harbour and the Saint John River before Dugua chose to settle on Saint Croix Island in present-day Maine. Although they did not explore the Petitcodiac region, they returned to the coasts of eastern Nova Scotia, where they founded Port Royal. In 1676, Jacques Bourgeois, a colonist from the Nova Scotian settlement, settled in the area of Beaubassin (now the Tantramar Marshes). By 1685, its population had grown to 129, with 19 out of the 22 families living permanently in the region. Pierre Thibodeau, also from Port Royal, founded Chipody (now Shepody, New Brunswick) near Shepody Bay in 1698. At this time, the inhabitants often referred to the Petitcodiac, Memramcook, and Shepody River area as "Trois-Rivières" (Three Rivers) (not to be confused with Trois-Rivières, Quebec).</p><br>
<h3>Acadian history (1698–1763)</h3><br>
<p>The French and Indian War erupted in 1754 amid tensions between the British and the French over control of the Ohio Valley. Initially, the inhabitants of Acadia were uninvolved in the conflict because the French had already ceded the land to Britain under the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). The Acadians were asked to take an oath declaring complete fidelity toward the British monarch on several occasions, but they refused. A declaration of neutrality was signed in 1730 and was accepted by Nova Scotia governor Richard Philipps. This earned the Acadians the nickname the "neutral French". At the outbreak of war in 1754, the British again demanded unconditional oaths of fealty, perceiving the Acadians as a possible threat. In spite of resistance led by Jean-Louis Le Loutre, representatives eventually agreed to sign,</p><br>
<p>About 1,100 Acadians living around the Petitcodiac River were affected by this decision. Two hundred British troops led by Major Joseph Frye were sent to destroy the settlements of the Three Rivers, beginning with Shepody and Village-des-Blanchard (now Hillsborough). Boishébert&#39;s troops, composed of inhabitants from the area and from Shepody, This defeat is thought to have been the reason for the British abandonment of the campaign at the Three Rivers. The commander and the evacuated Acadians, whom Edward Larracey estimated to total around 700, suffered a massive famine from 1756 to 1758, largely caused by the scarce resources following the battle.</p><br>
<p>In 1758, Joseph Broussard, also known as Beausoleil by the locals, led raids against British vessels sailing in the Bay of Fundy and the Cumberland Basin. They arrived in Moncton the following night, and about 30 Acadians began firing at their vessel. However, Danks held his offensive position, and the British killed 19 Acadians, taking nine others prisoner. He and his troops continued to sail up the river the next day; they sent 60 men to burn a settlement 6 mi west of Moncton. Historians presume that the area had already been deserted.</p><br>
<p>Acadians continued to survive in the region, overcoming the results of the raids. Scott sailed back to the region to search for Beausoleil and to weaken the Acadians before the winter. Additional raids by Scott between 14 and 17 November captured a dozen Acadian prisoners, burned settlements, and uncovered Beausoleil&#39;s own schooner. The crew sent an Acadian prisoner on the 17th to request the surrender of the remaining residents, but when he returned, he reported that they had all begun to flee to Cocagne, Shediac, and the settlements around the Miramichi River. This prompted Scott to return to Fort Frederick in Saint John.</p><br>
<p>A few of the Acadians migrating to the Miramichi River probably died of hypothermia during the trip due to the 1758–59 winter. Those who survived joined the refugees already present, who had been persuaded by Boishébert to seek refuge there. Inadequate housing and supplies, among other reasons, led to the deterioration of the reputation of the French commander, and only 700 Acadians remained there by late 1759. Meanwhile, the raiding rapidly took its toll on the residents who stayed around the Three Rivers, as food supplies became scarce and reconstruction became impossible. The fall of Quebec City in September 1759 also eliminated the possibility of assistance from that area. On 16 November 1759, the 190 Acadians in the region sent a delegate to Fort Beauséjour (which had been renamed Fort Cumberland) to announce their surrender to the newly promoted Colonel Frye. The settlements of Miramichi, Richibucto, and Bouctouche surrendered the next day, with a delegate sent to the fort to represent their 700 refugees. Frye requested and received permission from Governor Lawrence to take them in for the winter. The Acadian refugees were offered land on the Isthmus of Chignecto in early 1760, but most requested their original lands around the Three Rivers, which the governor granted.</p><br>
<h3>Resettlement and modern history (1763–present)</h3><br>
<p>After the Treaty of Paris (1763), exiled Acadians began to return to the area, but their numbers around the Three Rivers remained under 200 by 1769. Settlers from Philadelphia began to migrate to the Petitcodiac River area in 1766: the Trites, Jones and Stieff families moved to present-day Moncton, but the Stieff family (now Steeves), later moved south-east to Hillsborough. Nine families bought land up to 13 mi west from the bend of the river, ranging from 1718 to 2193 acre per grant. In 1829, the population of Moncton reached 100, composed mainly of descendants of these settlers.</p><br>
<p>Moncton&#39;s shipbuilding era began in 1840 with the arrival of Stewart Russell, a shipbuilder from Hopewell. Russell built the Aginora, which sailed down the Petitcodiac River to trade at the ports in Saint John and New England. The ship and its crew sank in a storm on 24 December 1850, during a trip to Boston for Christmas. A ferry service on the Petitcodiac River was launched around 1841, thanks to a license obtained by Simon Outhouse. The Larch, built by Stephen Binney in 1845, was another important vessel, becoming the largest to sail on the river. But it was not until the arrival of Joseph Salter in 1846 that the shipbuilding boom began: a shipyard founded by Binney and Salter produced 24 vessels from 1847 to 1859, and employed almost 500 of the 1,000 inhabitants in Moncton. Salter would become the first mayor of Moncton in April 1855, the year the town was incorporated.</p><br>
<p>The European and North American Railway was extended to link Pointe-du-Chene to Moncton in 1857, with an eventual goal of reaching Saint John in 1860. The move, according to Larracey, caused the town to become "but a station stop along a railway line". The town declared bankruptcy and was unincorporated in 1862, but it later regained its status in 1875, after it became the Intercolonial Railways headquarters for its shops in 1871. While the Petitcodiac River continued to aid in the shipping of goods into the 20th century, shipbuilding essentially ended in the 1890s. The final vessel built in Moncton was the Woolastook II on 14 May 1980, while the final ship to sail up the Petitcodiac River was the Inox from France, which arrived on 12 July 1986, (and was, ironically, stranded in Moncton until 3 November due to the rivers tidal fluctuations).</p><br>
<p>In 1924, the Petitcodiac Tidal Power Company proposed a tidal power project. This called for a dam to be built between Hopewell Cape and Fort Folly Point. The company sold shares to raise funds for the project and a series of on-site and airborne studies were conducted by the federal government, but the project fell through by 1928. As rail transport became more common, it displaced river transportation around the Great Depression. In addition, the Greater Moncton International Airport offered an airmail service from Moncton to Montreal by 29 December 1929. These factors further marginalised the Petitcodiac.</p><br>
<p>The Gunningsville Bridge, which crosses the Petitcodiac River to link Moncton and Riverview, was built in 1867. It was damaged and rebuilt on four different occasions. The first was following the Saxby Gale of 1869, which forced the town to rebuild the bridge in 1872. It went under "extensive repairs" mid-1892, but ice build-up from the Petitcodiac continued to pose a threat for the wooden structure, leading to the construction of a new steel version from 1915 to 1919. This fourth bridge would suffer through many collisions, including one with the Mayflower in September 1929, which caused the ship to capsize and drown two men. The Gunningsville Bridge would last 86 years before it would be demolished a final time, making way for a 425 m four-lane bridge crossing. Covered bridges were also built over the Petitcodiac River, the final extant one being "Hasty", built in 1929.</p><br>
<h3>Causeway controversy (1968–present)</h3><br>
<p>In 1968, the provincial and federal governments completed the construction of a causeway between the communities of Moncton and Riverview to provide a crossing over the river, and to keep water levels from impeding agricultural production. This was a benefit for the federal government at the time, which had constantly maintained the dykes in the area. It also benefited the provincial government, as the federal government was willing to fund the $3 million project, but not a bridge. Although the causeway was equipped with a fishway, problems arose when fish were unable to cross it freely due to sedimentation build-up; some 82 percent of the salmon were prevented from travelling upstream by the structure. The sediment accumulated in the 4.7 km of river downstream from the causeway, with over 10 million cubic metres (13 million cubic yards) of silt deposited in the first three years following construction. Several reports from 1969 to 1971 described its impact on the aquatic ecosystem, and proposals for amendments to the causeway gates were released, but no action was taken. In 1976 and 1977, reports pointed out several problems related to the gates&#39; function due to erosion, winter ice jams, and "unsatisfactory fishway operation".</p><br>
<p>It was not until 1978 that New Brunswicks Department of Transportation commissioned a study of the problems. The final report recommended three alternatives for action: to continue operation "as-is", to continue operation without the gates, or to eliminate gate leakage and amend the operation protocol. The third alternative was chosen two years later, but did not substantially improve fish migration as expected. The provincial government decided to open the gates between 15 April and 7 July 1988, to allow fish to migrate up the stream. This was repeated from 26 September to 31 October 1988, and in the spring of 1989 and 1990 during low tides. In 1991, New Brunswicks Department of Oceans and Fisheries recommended opening the gates from April to December each year. A provincial government committee report recommended an additional seven options for the modification of the causeway in May 1992, but the government did not act upon any of these options due to the low "cost-benefit" factor. More reports documented problems related to the passage of fish in the river until 1995, when the Department of Transportation agreed to open one gate from April to December, as suggested four years earlier. A project was then organized in December 1996 to begin a trial for the systematic opening of the gates during the year, but conditions could not be physically met, and it was terminated on 1 June 1999.</p><br>
<p>In February 2001, the Niles Report proposed an additional four modifications to the causeway project: to either replace the fishway, open the gates during peak fish migration, open the gates permanently, or replace the entire causeway with a bridge. An Environmental Impact Assessment study was commissioned in 2003 to develop and summarise these options, and on its completion in 2005, it announced the recognition of "Option 3" and "Option 4" as possible solutions. The first option had been ruled out following the evaluation of other fish passage models, which were deemed inapplicable to the river. The second, suggesting systematic gate-opening periods, was ruled out because of the inability to cater to every marine species&#39; migration periods. Option 4 was split into three sub-options, mainly to list possible bridge lengths: 170, 280, and 315 metres (190, 310, and 344 yards). The provincial government later accepted the proposal on 6 December 2006, and selected "Option 4B" on 7 August 2007, which called for a 280 m bridge in the place of the causeway.</p><br>
<p>The project was divided into three phases, expected to cost a total of $68 million. Phase 1 consisted of the prevention of erosion along the shorelines, improvements to the nearby drainage system, and the construction of dikes and aboiteaux; the work was carried out from 7 July 2008, to 14 April 2010. Phase 2 consists of opening the gates to monitor river flow, both upstream and downstream, for two years. Confusion arose as to whether or not the project would be funded by the federal government. They refused, in spite of an earlier comment from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, which had hinted at a possible negotiation. Unwilling to wait, the provincial government came forward with an initial $20 million on 7 July 2008, to begin the first phase.</p><br>
<p>The approach of Phase 2 was met with various complaints. A biology professor at the Université de Moncton noted that $200,000–$250,000 worth of pesticide would be required to keep the mosquito population around the city of Moncton from doubling once the gates open. Flood warnings were issued by the provincial Department of Supply and Services for the town of Riverview, warning that high river tides could lead to the flooding of over 3 hectare of sport fields and structures built in low-lying areas; however, they added that the causeway&#39;s flood gates were able to descend if required, eliminating the chances of such repercussions from a possible inundation. Residents near the headpond west of the causeway criticized the project, citing the decrease in property values of about 480 homes (by approximately 30 percent, according to the EIA report), the $68 million price tag, unstable ice conditions, and a lower water quality. In spite of legal threats by the Lake Petitcodiac Preservation Association (LAPPA) and various residents, the causeway opened its gates on 14 April 2010, coinciding with the beginning of various studies.</p><br>
<p>Since the opening, the river improved significantly, surpassing original expectations for the project. An AMEC engineer participating in the firms studies, Jacques Paynter, said that the banks of the river had begun widening "at a noticeable pace", with the tidal bore growing closer to its pre-1968 levels: "We were actually anticipating a fairly modest increase in height. It seems to be already exceeding what we might have expected." He noted that an estimated 40,000 gaspereau had returned to the river, and called for more studies to determine the impact of the causeways opening.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Residents around the Petitcodiac have used the river for various recreational purposes. Trips were made annually via the river from Moncton to Beaumont for Feast of Saint-Anne celebrations with the locals. The Blakeson, a towboat owned by Blakeny and Sons, offered "moonlight cruises" in the early 1930s for 50 cents (approximately $6.50 in 2010 values). The service was popular until the towboat capsized in front of embarking passengers, causing them to lose interest. During their Environmental Impact Assessment in September 2005, AMEC cited recreational fishing and birdwatching as major pre-causeway activities. A fishery for Atlantic salmon existed downstream from the causeway for several years post-1968. The Moncton Naturalists Club also publishes their Birding in the Moncton Area, a birdwatching guide covering sites from Sackville to Marys Point. Other activities downstream from the causeway include boating, canoeing, kayaking, seal and harbour-porpoise viewing, and tour boating. On 24 July 2013, the North American record for surfing a single river wave was set by Wessels and Whitbread of California, who rode the Petitcodiac River&#39;s tidal bore 29 km.</p><br>
<p>Before the opening of the causeway gates on 14 April 2010, the Petitcodiac River&#39;s 21 km headpond (west of the causeway), colloquially known as Lake Petitcodiac, was promoted by LAPPA as a recreational haven for residents in the area. According to the association, over 10,000 estimated hours of boating took place on the lake, in addition to canoeing, kayaking, motor boating, water skiing, jet skiing, sailing, and swimming. Fishing tournaments, dragon boat ragattas, dog sledding, and snowmobiling were popular at the time as well. However, a study by the PWMG showed that fecal coliform levels in the headpond from June, July, and September 2009 exceeded 2,419 parts per 100 millilitres; more than 12 times the 200/100 ml recommended by the Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for recreational purposes.</p><br>
<p>Bore Park, located in the area formerly known as La Chapelle, Bore Park is a part of Riverfront Park, Greater Moncton&#39;s 5 km section of the Trans Canada Trail, where tourists may walk, bike, or skate along the riverfront. The trail continues west to Hillsborough and Fundy National Park, and east to Sackville, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island.</p><br>
<h2>Lists</h2><br>
<p>The following lists are ordered from the mouth of the river to its source.</p><br>
<h3>Crossings</h3><br>
<p>The river is crossed 11 times: by 10 bridges and a causeway.</p><br>
<h3>Tributaries</h3><br>
<p>The Petitcodiac River features ten named tributaries, which drain a total of 28 additional streams.</p><br>
<p>Mount Umunhum  is the fourth-highest peak in California&#39;s Santa Cruz Mountains . The mountain is situated in Santa Clara County, south of San Jose. It is sometimes referred to as Mount Um by locals. Most of the mountain is within the Sierra Azul Open Space Preserve.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is topped by a five-story concrete radar tower, known locally as "the Cube" or "the Box". The tower was part of Almaden Air Force Station, a radar surveillance post which operated from 1958 to 1980. The Cube, which housed an 85.5-ton AN/FPS-24 radar, was completed in 1962 and used to watch for hostile aircraft during the Cold War. Its signal put an electronic zip into every radio, TV and sound system within its 250 mile range on every rotation.</p><br>
<p>The summit was closed to the public due to hazardous materials and unsafe, partially demolished structures from the former Air Force station. Plans are underway to clean it up and restore it for public use. "In 2009, with federal funding, Midpeninsula Regional Open Space District removed 3,000 cubic yards of hazardous materials, including lead paint, asbestos, fuel storage containers and PCB transformers; and deconstructed 13,680 tons of concrete, asphalt, wood and other materials." The demolition of the cube was considered, but in May 2016, the Santa Clara County Board of Supervisors listed it on the County Heritage Resource Inventory, giving it official historic status and protecting it from demolition. On September 18, 2017, the road, a mountain biking and hiking trail to the summit were opened. Facilities include new pavement, restrooms, interpretive displays and a small parking lot at the summit. It is a spur of the Bay Area Ridge Trail.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is also the site of the Bay Area NEXRAD weather radar. The high elevation is necessary for line of sight in the region&#39;s varied terrain, but it also limits the ability to detect storms with bases lower in the atmosphere.</p><br>
<p>Katerini  is a town in Central Macedonia, Greece, the capital of Pieria regional unit. It lies on the Pierian plain, between Mt. Olympus and the Thermaikos Gulf, at an altitude of 14 m. The town, which is one of the newest in Greece, has a population of 85,851 . It is near the city of Thessaloniki, Greeces second largest city, which has been beneficial for Katerinis development over recent years. Katerini is accessible from the main Thessaloniki–Athens highway GR-1/E75  and the Egnatia Odos to the north. It is served by both Intercity and local trains on the main railway line from Athens to Thessaloniki and there is a comprehensive regional and national bus service with its hub in the town.</p><br>
<p>A popular tourist destination in northern Greece, Katerini is close to the sea (6 km) and to several archaeological sites of great interest such as the ancient city of Dion (5th century BC, 17 km away), the ancient Leivithra (27 km away) and the Castle of Platamon. The beaches of Korinos, Paralia and Olympiaki Akti (or Katerinoskala) are visited by both Greek and international tourists during the summer. The base of Mount Olympus and the town of Litochoro, are at a distance of around 20 kilometres from the centre of Katerini.</p><br>
<h2>Name and history</h2><br>
<p>The origin of the name is obscure. The modern town was probably founded during Ottoman rule, but already from the 13th century, travellers as well as maps record the existence of a settlement called Hatera (Ἅτηρα), which may have been the origin of the modern name. Thus Felix Beaujour recorded its name as "Katheri", while François Pouqueville gives the name of the settlement as "Kateri Hatera". According to another theory, the town derives its name from the small chapel dedicated to Saint Catherine (Aikaterini in Greek) to the east of the town, dating to at least the early 19th century. The latter hypothesis influenced official usage in Greek, where the town is found as "Aikaterini" or "Agia Aikaterini" until the early 20th century, when the vernacular name Katerini prevailed.</p><br>
<p>According to the reports of travellers, at the turn of the 19th century, the town had four to five thousand inhabitants, mostly Greeks. In 1806, William Martin Leake recorded 100 hearths, while four years later Daniel recorded 140. For the remainder of the 19th century, the number of homes remained steady at about 300, with a population in 1900 of 2,070 Greek Orthodox and 600 Muslims.</p><br>
<p>The town was captured by the Greek 7th Infantry Division on 16 October 1912, during the First Balkan War, and has been part of Greece since then. With the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923, the towns Muslims left, and Greek refugees, particularly from Eastern Thrace and Greek Evangelicals from Asia Minor, took their place, almost doubling the towns population from 5,540 in 1920 to 10,138 in 1928.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Administrative division</h3><br>
<p>The municipality of Katerini was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 6 former municipalities, that became municipal units of the newly formed Katerini municipality:</p><br>
<p>Elafina, population 4,313</p><br>
<p>Katerini, population 62,205</p><br>
<p>Korinos, population 5,557</p><br>
<p>Paralia, population 6,803</p><br>
<p>Petra, population 4,888</p><br>
<p>Pierioi, population 2,085</p><br>
<p>The municipal unit of Katerini consists of the following municipal communities:</p><br>
<p>Katerini, population 58,309</p><br>
<p>Svoronos, population 2,175</p><br>
<p>Ano Agios Ioannis, population 477</p><br>
<p>Ganochora, population 799</p><br>
<p>Neokaisareia, population 445</p><br>
<p>The municipal community of Katerini consists of the following settlements:</p><br>
<p>Andromachi, population 1,061</p><br>
<p>Katerini, population 55,997</p><br>
<p>Nea Chrani, population 467</p><br>
<p>Neo Keramidi, population 464</p><br>
<p>Olympiaki Akti, population 320</p><br>
<p>The municipality Katerini has an area of 681.863 km, the municipal unit Katerini has an area of 93.659 km, the community Katerini 63.196 km.</p><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Katerini has a Mediterranean climate that is characterised by warm to hot, dry summers and cool and more humid winters (Köppen climate classification: Csa/Csb).</p><br>
<h2>Local Delicacies</h2><br>
<p>Katerini is located near several villages which are renowned for their high quality produce. In particular kiwis and cherries are one of the more important productions in the region as well as Strawberries. There is an important cultivation of Tobacco in the region and lots of people spend considerable resources for its development and for exporting the produce to large manufacturers. Dried Nuts are also very popular in the region and consumers are accustomed to eating them as a healthy snack. Some of the earliest Greek manufacturers emerged from this region. In particular, the Armenian manufacturer Daniel Avakian () remains as one of the earliest firms that specialized in the manufacturing of chick peas. The first ever roasting oven is still in display in the following address: AVAKIAN Daniel and Son Dagli street 2, Katerini.</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<h3>Local Government</h3><br>
<p>The mayor of Katerini is Savvas Chionidis, a member of the Political Committee of New Democracy. Chionidis was elected for a second term in the 2010 local elections.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Katerini is the administrative and economic centre of Pieria. The Chamber of commerce and industry of Pieria is based in Katerini. The same applies for the Union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Pieria and the Union of hotel owners of Pieria.</p><br>
<h3>Agriculture</h3><br>
<p>Katerini lies in the middle of a plain and thus, it is greatly an agricultural town. As of 2000 26,775 people were occupied in agriculture, in Pieria. The Union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Pieria has 9,000 members, of which 2,000 grow tobacco. Kiwifruit is also produced in Katerini.</p><br>
<h3>Tourism</h3><br>
<p>Katerini is a popular tourist destination, that attracts tourist both from Greece and abroad. Within the boundaries of the municipality, there are over 230 hotels that can accommodate more that 8,600 people. The vast majority of the tourist infrastructure lie in Paralia and Olympiaki Akti and it also includes tens of tavernas and cafes. Winter tourism has started developing in the area, since the construction of the Elatochori ski resort. Katerini is surrounded by ancient archaeological sites as Dion, Leivithra, Pydna, Louloudies and Platamon Castle which are worth a visit.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<h3>Local transport</h3><br>
<p>The Urban KTEL of Katerini serves the connention between Katerini and its nearby settlements. The bus hub is in Katerini and it has lines towards Moschochori, Paralia, Dion, Pieria, Aronas and Nea Trapezounta. These lines serve all the settlements that lie between Katerini and the aforementioned final destinations.</p><br>
<h3>Road transport</h3><br>
<p>Katerini is served by A1 and National Road 1 that run north-south from Evzonoi to Athens. The connection between Katerini and Elassona is served by National Road 13. Single carriageways run from Katerini to every settlement of the Pieria. Bus lines, delivered by the Intercity KTEL of Pieria, connect Katerini directly with Athens, Thessaloniki, Elassona, Alexandreia and all the settlements of Pieria that are not served by the Urban KTEL of Katerini. There are also privately held international bus lines that connect Katerini with several cities in Albania and Bulgaria.</p><br>
<h3>Rail links</h3><br>
<p>The main line of the Greek railway system that connects Athens with Thessaloniki passes through Katerini. As a result, the town is connected directly with Larisa and Thessaloniki via the Proastiakos It is also connected with Athens and all the intermediate stations by Intercity train lines.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<h3>Historical population</h3><br>
<h3>Local communities</h3><br>
<p>Katerini is home to a significant Aromanian population that exceeds 3,000 people. Aromanians of Katerini mainly descend from nearby Aromanian settlements of Livadi and Kokkinopilos, and in lesser numbers from Samarina, Moscopole, Avdella, Perivoli and Smixi. According to some sources the Aromanians formed a majority amongst the town&#39;s Christian population in the beginning of the 20th century.</p><br>
<h3>Religion</h3><br>
<p>Georgios, a Greek orthodox Metropolitan of the Church of Greece has his seat in Katerini. The Metropolis of Kitros, Katerini and Platamonas has 16 congregations within the town of Katerini. Katerini has a relatively numerous Protestant community, as a result of the organised settlement of Evangelical Greek refugees from Asia Minor and Pontus. Today the Greek Evangelical Church of Katerini has almost 1,100 followers. Other Protestant denominations, that have a church within the town, are the Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, the Greek Apostolic Church of Pentecost and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. The Protestant community is fully integrated in the life of the town, but in the past there were tensions between the Evangelical community and the Greek Orthodox majority. These tensions led to the arson of the Evangelical Church of Katerini from a Greek Orthodox mob in March 1930.</p><br>
<h3>Immigrants</h3><br>
<p>As of 2001, the Municipal unit of Katerini (then Municipality of Katerini) was home to 2,794 foreign nationals (4.9% of the total population). Amongst them the most populous ethnic group was Albanians (2.5%) followed by Georgians (0.5%), Russians (0.4%) and Bulgarians (0.3%).</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<h3>Football</h3><br>
<p>Katerini is represented by two football teams in the national leagues; Pierikos, a club currently playing in the Football League 2. The womens football club of Pierides Muses plays in the Womens Second National Division.</p><br>
<h3>Other Sports</h3><br>
<p>Pierikos-Archelaos B.C. currently competes in the A2 League, the second tier of Greek basketball. GAS Archelaos plays in the A2 League the second tier of the Greek handball league system.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Dimitrios Tsalopoulos, politician, MP</p><br>
<p>Lakis Papaioannou, international football player</p><br>
<p>Georgios Kostikos, international football player</p><br>
<p>Alexandros Tziolis, international football player</p><br>
<p>Kyriakos Papadopoulos, international football player</p><br>
<p>Demos Anastasiadis, singer</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<p>Katerini is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Čačak, Serbia</p><br>
<p>Moosburg, Austria</p><br>
<p>Maintal, Germany</p><br>
<p>Surgut, Russia</p><br>
<p>Himmelbjerget  is a mountain located between Ry and Silkeborg, Denmark in the area known as Søhøjlandet.</p><br>
<p>With a height of 147 m (482 ft), Himmelbjerget is one of the highest natural points in the Danish landscape. The hill and surrounding area has been a center for various gatherings and celebrations for more than 200 years and in 1875, a red brick tower was erected at the top.</p><br>
<h2>Height and prominence</h2><br>
<p>Himmelbjerget was believed to be the highest natural point in Denmark until 1847, when a larger scientific survey revealed the nearby Møllehøj to be the highest, at 170.86 m. However, when it comes to the size of the slope and the topographical prominence (aka peak factor), Himmelbjerget is much more impressive than Møllehøj: There is a height difference of 121 m from lake Julsø below to the top of the hill, which is remarkable by Danish standards. An amusing detail is the sign "to the boat" at the peak.</p><br>
<h2>Historic importance</h2><br>
<p>Himmelbjerget grew to fame in Denmark during the 19th century, as people gathered here to admire the magnificent views and celebrate the birth of the Danish nation. On top of the hill is a 25.1 m tall tower, that was erected in 1875 to honour King Frederik VII and his role in giving the Danish people the countrys first constitution in 1849, thereby ending the preceding era of absolute monarchy. Close to the top are more monuments, most honouring individuals, but also one to commemorate womens right to vote in 1915.</p><br>
<p>In those days, several steamboats began ferrying visitors back and forth to Himmelbjerget, from various destinations across Julsø and The Silkeborg Lakes. This tradition is still alive and the historic steamship Hjejlen ("The Golden Plover"), carries passengers here from the towns of Ry and Silkeborg.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking</h2><br>
<p>There are several hiking routes in the larger area of Søhøjlandet and the major route of Hiking Route Aarhus-Silkeborg, is passing through the area of Himmelbjerget. There are also plenty of opportunity to small scale hiking experiences on and around the hill itself.</p><br>
<p>The Kawarau River drains Lake Wakatipu in northwestern Otago, New Zealand. The river flows generally eastwards for about 60 km and passes through the steep Kawarau Gorge until it joins Lake Dunstan near Cromwell. The Shotover River enters it from the north; the Nevis River enters it from the south. With many rapids and strong currents, the river can be dangerous and has claimed many lives: it is also popular for bungy jumping and kayaking.</p><br>
<p>A natural bridge, "Whatatorere", where the river narrows to 1.2 m, was important first to early Māori and then to goldminers as the only place the Clutha and Kawarau rivers could be crossed without boats. Māori were heading for the Cardrona valley to reach Wanaka, and on to the Haast Pass to seek pounamu. The miners were seeking gold in the Arrow Goldfields.</p><br>
<p>Now, the main road to Queenstown, SH6, runs through the Kawarau Gorge.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Kawarau is a Māori name meaning many shrubs. However the current shrubs around the river are largely of exotic origin and likely to be different from the original native bushes that the name came from.</p><br>
<p>The name would normally be pronounced to rhyme approximately with "now" as in "Māori", but is often pronounced by locals as if it were "K&#39;worra", possibly influenced by the southern dialect of Māori. It should not be confused with the Bay of Plenty town of Kawerau.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the 19th century, alluvial gold was extracted from the river. The Goldfields Mining Centre, downstream of the gorge, features a working exhibition of 19th century gold mining techniques. Some of the miners&#39; huts remain today, many of them close to thriving vineyards.</p><br>
<p>In 1924 a company was formed to drain the river by blocking off Lake Wakatipu, with the intent of then collecting gold from the river bed. Ten massive gates were completed in 1927 and although the river level dropped it was not laid bare as planned. The gates now form part of State Highway 6.</p><br>
<p>The Roaring Meg Hydro Scheme discharges into the Kawarau just upstream from the Whatatorere narrows.</p><br>
<h2>Water Conservation Order</h2><br>
<p>A Water Conservation Order protects the river for its wild and scenic character, natural characteristics, scientific values and for recreational use. No damming of the river is allowed and the water must be maintained to a specific standard.</p><br>
<p>The Water conservation Order covers the stretch of river from the Lake Wakatipu control gates to Scrubby Stream. Fish and Game has sought an amendment to the Water Conservation Order to prevent any damming of the Nevis River and to seek conditions on changes to the minimum flows.</p><br>
<h2>Adventure tourism</h2><br>
<p>The first European to visit the area was Nathaniel Chalmers, who was guided inland by Chiefs Reko and Kaikoura in 1853.</p><br>
<p>Reko and Kaikoura showed Chalmers the rock bridge "Whatatorere" at Roaring Meg, which was the only place that the Kawarau River could be crossed, and returned him down the Clutha in a flax reed boat.</p><br>
<p>Tourist adventure activities on the river include riverboarding, jet boating, white water rafting, river surfing, and bungy jumping. The Kawarau Gorge Suspension Bridge, 43 m above the river, and a Category I historic place, is the site of the world&#39;s first commercial bungy jumping operation. Eastburn Station gave up the 300 acre plus that forms the natural backdrop as a reserve.</p><br>
<p>The Kawarau is the largest volume river commercially rafted in New Zealand, with an average flow of 216 m3/s at Chards Road measuring station. The four significant commercially used rapids on the river are Smiths Falls, Twin Bridges, Do Little Do Nothing and the 400 m Chinese Dog Leg. Below these are the dangerous Nevis Bluff, Citroen and Roaring Meg sections. Because of the danger Waitiri Station usually declines access.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Kawarau featured as a setting for the Argonath in the 2001 motion picture, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring.</p><br>
<p>Frederick John Cato of the firm Moran & Cato, was a teacher from Invercargill, New Zealand, where he met and married Frances Bethune. They named their expansive home in Tooronga Rd, Hawthorn East, Victoria, Australia; "Kawarau".</p><br>
<p>On 25 September 2008, a Chinese tourist died in a jet boat accident at the confluence with the Shotover. The Kawarau Jet boat flipped after hitting a sandbar, leaving one passenger trapped underneath, and putting the remaining 21 and driver into the river.</p><br>
<h2>Bridges</h2><br>
<p>Bridges that pass over the Kawarau River are:</p><br>
<p>Kawarau Gorge Suspension Bridge</p><br>
<p>Kawarau River Bridge</p><br>
<p>Kawarau River (Victoria) Bridge</p><br>
<p>Kawarau Falls Bridge</p><br>
<p>Until it was destroyed in the 19th century, the natural rock bridge "Whatatorere" at Roaring Meg was the only place that the Kawarau River and Clutha River / Mata-Au could be crossed without boats.</p><br>
<p>The Aconcagua River is a river in Chile that rises from the conflux of two minor tributary rivers at 1,430 m above sea level in the Andes, Juncal River from the east  and Blanco River from the south east. The Aconcagua river flows westward through the broad Aconcagua valley and enters the Pacific Ocean near the city of Concon, 20 km north of Valparaíso.</p><br>
<p>The river has a course of about 142 km, and its waters irrigate the most populous sections of the Chilean provinces of San Felipe de Aconcagua and Los Andes, being the most important economic resource of those regions. During the course of the Aconcagua river, it receives contributions from many others rivers and swamps, reaching a mean flow of 39 m3/s.</p><br>
<p>The Aconcagua River valley was used as the route of the Transandine Railway on the Chilean side. The river flows alongside Chile Route 5 from Llaillay to La Calera. For much of their lengths, the two separate stretches of Chile Route 60 follow the course of the river.</p><br>
<p>Although it has the same name, the Aconcagua river does not rise in the slopes of Aconcagua, which is entirely in Argentina about 20 km from the beginning of the river, in Chilean territory.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Colorado Rivr</p><br>
<p>Estero Pocuro</p><br>
<p>Putaendo River</p><br>
<p>Estero Quilpué</p><br>
<p>Estero Catemu</p><br>
<p>Estero Los Loros</p><br>
<p>Estero Los Litres</p><br>
<p>Estero Limache</p><br>
<p>Nafpaktos  is a town and a former municipality in Aetolia-Acarnania, West Greece, Greece, situated on a bay on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, 3 km west of the mouth of the river Mornos.</p><br>
<p>It is named for Naupaktos (Ναύπακτος, Latinized Naupactus), an important Athenian naval station in the Peloponnesian war. As a strategically crucial possession controlling access to the Gulf of Corinth, Naupactus changed hands many times during the Crusades and the Ottoman–Venetian Wars. It was under Venetian control in the 15th century, and came to be known by the Venetian form of its name, Lepanto. It fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1499 and was used as naval station by the Ottoman Navy in the 16th century, being the site of the decisive victory by the Holy League in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Excepting a brief period of Venetian control in 1687–1699, Lepanto remained under Ottoman control until Greek independence in 1829.</p><br>
<p>The modern municipality was incorporated in 1946, but merged into the larger Nafpaktia municipality in the 2010 reform. Nafpaktos is now both the name of a municipal unit within Nafpaktia and of the town proper within the Nafpaktos unit.</p><br>
<p>The municipal district has an area of 159,947 km&sup2, with a population close to 20,000.</p><br>
<p>The town is 9 km northeast of Antirrio, 18 km northeast of Patras, 35 km east of Missolonghi and 45 km southeast of Agrinio. The Greek National Road 48/E65 (Antirrio – Nafpaktos – Delphi – Livadeia) passes north of the town. It is the second largest town of Aetolia-Acarnania, after Agrinio.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The ancient name Naupaktos (Ναύπακτος) means "boatyard" (from ναύς naus "ship" and πήγ- pêg- "to fix, fasten"). It was later Latinized as Naupactus. By the late medieval period, the local name had been corrupted to Nepahtos (Νέπαχτος), Epaktos or Epahtos (Έπακτος, Έπαχτος). By the "Franks" (Latins) it was called Neopant, Nepant or Lepant. French sources of the 14th century give Nepant or Neopant; Venetian sources have Nepanto or Lepanto.</p><br>
<p>The name was adapted in Ottoman Turkish from Greek Νέπαχτος as Aynabahti or İnebahtı.</p><br>
<p>The original ancient name was revived in modern Greece in the 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Antiquity</h3><br>
<p>In Greek legend, Naupactus is the place where the Heraclidae built a fleet to invade the Peloponnese.</p><br>
<p>In historical times it belonged to the Ozolian Locrians; but about 455 BC, in spite of a partial resettlement with Locrians of Opus, it fell to the Athenians, who peopled it with Messenian refugees and made it their chief naval station in western Greece during the Peloponnesian war. Two major battles were fought here. In 404 it was restored to the Locrians, who subsequently lost it to the Achaeans, but recovered it.</p><br>
<p>Philip II of Macedon gave Naupactus to the Aetolians, who held it till 191 BC, when after an obstinate siege it was surrendered to the Romans. It was still flourishing about 170.</p><br>
<p>The Roman playwright Plautus mentions Naupactus in his comedy Miles Gloriosus as the destination of an Athenian master (Pleusicles) who is on a diplomatic mission to the city.</p><br>
<p>In 551/2, during the reign of Justinian I, the city was destroyed by an earthquake.</p><br>
<h3>Medieval and early modern history</h3><br>
<p>The town and its hinterland were hit by an epidemic coming from Italy in 747/8 and almost deserted. From the late 9th century, probably the 880s, it was capital of the Byzantine thema of Nicopolis. At the same time, its bishopric was elevated to a metropolis. During the 9th–10th centuries, the town was an important harbour for the Byzantine navy and a strategic point for communication with the Byzantine possessions in southern Italy.</p><br>
<p>A rebellion of the local populace, which led to the death of the local strategos George, is recorded during the early reign of Constantine VIII (r. 1025–28). In 1040, the town did not take part in the uprising of Peter Delyan, and although attacked by the rebel army, alone among the towns of the theme of Nicopolis, it resisted successfully. St. Nicholas of Trani is recorded as having departed for Otranto in 1094 from the port. The history of the town over the next two centuries is obscure; during the visit of Benjamin of Tudela in 1165, there was a Jewish community of about 100 in the town.</p><br>
<p>Following the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade, it became part of the Despotate of Epirus. Under its metropolitan, John Apokaukos, the see of Naupactus gained in importance and headed the local synod for the southern half of the Epirote domains. In 1294, the town was ceded to Philip I, Prince of Taranto as part of the dowry of Thamar Angelina Komnene. The ruler of Thessaly, Constantine Doukas, attacked Epirus in the next year and captured Naupactus, but in 1296 handed most of his conquests back to the Angevins, and Naupactus became a major Angevin base on the Greek mainland.</p><br>
<p>In 1304 or 1305, the Epirotes recovered Naupactus during a war with the Angevins, but handed it back when peace was concluded in 1306.</p><br>
<p>In 1361 the town was captured by the Catalans of the Duchy of Athens. In 1376 or 1377 it fell to John Bua Spata, an Albanian vassal of Epirus.</p><br>
<p>It was briefly occupied Knights Hospitaller in 1378, and, now wedged between the expanding lands of the Count of Cephalonia Carlo I Tocco and the Ottoman possessions, sold to the Republic of Venice by Paul Spata in 1407.</p><br>
<p>After 1449, the town was an isolated Venetian exclave in Ottoman territory, as the Ottomans completed their conquest of the rest of Epirus and Aetolia-Acarnania. The town was important to Venice, as it secured their trade through the Corinthian Gulf, and the Republic took care to erect strong fortifications to secure its possession. In the end, the fortress fell to the Ottomans in 1499, during the Second Ottoman–Venetian War.</p><br>
<p>Under the Ottomans, Naupactus was known as Aynabahtı, İnebahtı and was the seat of an Ottoman province. The mouth of the Gulf of Lepanto was the scene of the great sea battle in which the naval power of the Ottoman Empire was nearly completely destroyed by the united Spanish, Papal and Venetian forces (Battle of Lepanto, October 7, 1571).</p><br>
<p>In 1687 it was recaptured by the Venetians, but was again restored to the Ottomans in 1699, by the Treaty of Karlowitz. Miguel de Cervantes the most famous Spanish writer fought in the Battle of Lepanto and there is a statue in his honour.</p><br>
<h3>Modern history</h3><br>
<p>Nafpaktos became part of independent Greece in March 1829.</p><br>
<p>It was incorporated as a commune in 1912 and as an independent municipality in 1946. In the 1997 reform,</p><br>
<p>Nafpaktos municipality was enlarged by the incorporation of 13 communes. In the 2010 reform, Nafpaktos municipality was merged with five other municipalities to form Nafpaktia municipality, and the town of Nafpaktos proper is now a communal district within the Nafpaktos municipal district of Nafpaktia municipality.</p><br>
<p>Naupactus suffered damage from the 2007 Greek forest fires.</p><br>
<h2>Ecclesiastical history</h2><br>
<p>The metropolitan see of Naupactus depended on the pope of Rome until 733, when Leo III the Isaurian annexed it to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.</p><br>
<p>The zealous youth St. Nicholas of Trani after a failed attempt at the mortifications of cenoebitic life at the Hosios Loukas monastery in Boetia set sail in the spring of 1094 on a pilgrimage to Rome for the Solemnity of Sts. Peter and Paul. His pious habit of evangelizing the sailors with constant proclamations (in Greek kerygma from κηρύσσω, meaning "to cry or proclaim as a herald") of the phrase Kyrie Eleison according to legend, led them to throw him overboard. He made it ashore in Italy, but was not hospitably received and died some months later aged just 19. Miraculous cures led to him being publicly acclaimed as worthy of veneration by the Bishop of Trani at the Council of Bari in 1098.</p><br>
<p>Under Frankish rule, there were about 20 archbishops in the 14–15th centuries. The city remains a titular see of the Roman Catholic church.</p><br>
<p>The see was attached to the Church of Greece after the Greek War of Independence. It was suppressed in 1900, replaced by the see of Acarnania and Naupactia, whose seat is at Missolonghi.</p><br>
<h2>Residents</h2><br>
<p>Today the population is about 19,768 people according to the 2011 census. Residential homes align with the Gulf of Corinth over a length of about 3 km and a width of about 1 km. The port divides the beachfront in two parts. The Western part is called Psani, while the Eastern part Gribovo. Naupactus sits on a shoulder of a mountain range on the north while farmlands dominate the western part. It used to be on the GR-48/E65 linking Antirrio and Amfissa; now it is bypassed to the north at the elevation of 150 to 200 m above sea level. The bypass has contributed significantly in lowering the number of heavy trucks passing through the narrow streets of the town.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<p>The port and castle provide the main attraction for the town. Shops, cafés and bars dot the immediate area, while a café is also located within the castle walls</p><br>
<p>The port also includes monuments commemorating the Battle of Lepanto (1571), and there is also a statue of the Cervantes by the Mallorcan artist Jaume Mir.</p><br>
<p>A small water park is located just past the western portion of the beach near Psani</p><br>
<p>Nafpaktos is also home to a local museum</p><br>
<p>The Fethiye Mosque, the city&#39;s largest Ottoman-era mosque</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Nafpaktos is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<p>Afroxylia (Ano Afroxylia, Kato Afroxylia)</p><br>
<p>Dafni (Dafni, Kato Dafni)</p><br>
<p>Lygias</p><br>
<p>Mamoulada (Kato Mamoulada, Mamoulada)</p><br>
<p>Nafpaktos</p><br>
<p>Neokastro (Neokastro, Paliampela)</p><br>
<p>Palaiochoraki (Palaiochoraki, Mikro Palaiochoraki)</p><br>
<p>Pitsinaiika (Pitsinaiika, Kastraki, Sykia)</p><br>
<p>Riganio (Riganio, Diasello, Poros)</p><br>
<p>Skala</p><br>
<p>Velvina</p><br>
<p>Vlachomandra (Vlachomandra, Gefyra Bania, Sfikaaika)</p><br>
<p>Vomvokou (Vomvokou, Agios Vasileios, Lefka Vomvokous, Marmara)</p><br>
<p>Xiropigado</p><br>
<h2>Nearest places</h2><br>
<p>Antirrio (west)</p><br>
<p>Katafygio (Katafigio): One of the traditional villages in Orini Nafpaktia (mountainous Nafpaktia).</p><br>
<p>Ano chora (north): One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia</p><br>
<p>Kentriki (north): One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia</p><br>
<p>Aspria (north): One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia</p><br>
<p>Chomori: One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia</p><br>
<p>Elatovrisi or Elatou: One of the traditional villages of Orini Nafpaktia with famous natural spring water.</p><br>
<p>Skala: Village found in the hills minutes from the town centre; overlooks the town itself</p><br>
<p>Skaloma: beaches</p><br>
<p>Hiliadou: Part of the strip of beachside villages outside of Nafpaktos (Hiliadou-Monastiraki-Skaloma); sandy beach makes it a popular destination for residents of Nafpaktos and tourists</p><br>
<p>Klepa: One of the villages in Orini Nafpaktia</p><br>
<p>Platanos</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Media</h2><br>
<h3>Television</h3><br>
<p>Lepanto TV</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Agelaus (3rd century BC), politician</p><br>
<p>John Apokaukos (died 1233), Metropolitan of Naupactus from 1200 to 1232</p><br>
<p>Georgios Athanasiadis-Novas (1893–1987), lawyer, politician and former Prime Minister of Greece</p><br>
<p>Hierotheos (Vlachos) (born 1945), Metropolitan of Nafpaktos and Agios Vlasios</p><br>
<h2>International relations</h2><br>
<h3>Twin towns — Sister cities</h3><br>
<p>Nafpaktos is twinned with:</p><br>
<p>Marino, Lazio, Italy</p><br>
<p>Pontevedra, Spain</p><br>
<h2>Sports teams</h2><br>
<p>Nafpaktiakos Asteras F.C.</p><br>
<p>The Janiculum  is a hill in western Rome, Italy. Although the second-tallest hill  in the contemporary city of Rome, the Janiculum does not figure among the proverbial Seven Hills of Rome, being west of the Tiber and outside the boundaries of the ancient city.</p><br>
<h2>Sights</h2><br>
<p>The Janiculum is one of the best locations in Rome for a scenic view of central Rome with its domes and bell towers. Other sights on the Janiculum include the church of San Pietro in Montorio, on what was formerly thought to be the site of St Peters crucifixion; a small shrine known as the Tempietto, designed by Donato Bramante, marks the supposed site of Peters death. The Janiculum also houses a Baroque fountain built by Pope Paul V in the late 17th century, the Fontana dellAcqua Paola, and several foreign research institutions, including the American Academy in Rome and the Spanish Academy in Rome. The Hill is also the location of The American University of Rome, Pontifical Urban University, and Pontifical North American College, as well as the Orto Botanico dellUniversità di Roma "La Sapienza" and the Palazzo Montorio, residence of the Ambassadors of Spain.</p><br>
<p>The Villa Lante al Gianicolo by Giulio Romano (1520-21) is an important early building by the Mannerist master, also with magnificent views.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient history and mythology</h3><br>
<p>The Janiculum was a center for the cult of the god Janus: its position overlooking the city made it a good place for augurs to observe the auspices.</p><br>
<p>In Roman mythology, Janiculum is the name of an ancient town founded by the god Janus (the two-faced god of beginnings). In Book VIII of the Aeneid by Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro), King Evander shows Aeneas (the Trojan hero of this epic poem) the ruins of Saturnia and Janiculum on the Capitoline Hill near the Arcadian city of Pallanteum (the future site of Rome) (see line 54, Bk. 8). Virgil uses these ruins to stress the significance of the Capitoline Hill as the religious center of Rome.</p><br>
<p>According to Livy, the Janiculum was incorporated into ancient Rome during the time of king Ancus Marcius to prevent an enemy from occupying it. It was fortified by a wall, and a bridge was built across the Tiber to join it to the rest of the city.</p><br>
<p>During the war between Rome and Clusium in 508 BC, it is said that the forces of Lars Porsena occupied the Janiculum and laid siege to Rome.</p><br>
<h3>The water mills</h3><br>
<p>The Aurelian Walls were continued up the hill by the emperor Aurelian (reigned AD 270–275) to include the water mills used to grind grain to provide bread flour for the city. The mills were supplied from an aqueduct, where it plunged down a steep hill. Thus the site resembles Barbegal, although excavations in the late 1990s suggest that they may have been undershot rather than overshot in design. The mills were in use in AD 537, when the Goths besieging the city cut off their water supply. But they were later restored and may have remained in operation until at least the time of Pope Gregory IV (827–844).</p><br>
<h3>19th century to present</h3><br>
<p>The Janiculum is the site of a battle in 1849 between the forces of Garibaldi, defending the revolutionary Roman Republic against French forces, who were fighting to restore the temporal power of the Pope over Rome. Several monuments to Garibaldi and to the fallen in the wars of Italian independence are on the Janiculum.</p><br>
<p>Daily at noon, a cannon fires once from the Janiculum in the direction of the Tiber as a time signal. This tradition goes back to December 1847, when the cannon of the Castel Sant&#39;Angelo gave the sign to the surrounding belltowers to start ringing at midday. In 1904, the ritual was transferred to the Janiculum and continued until 1939. On 21 April 1959, popular appeal convinced the Commune of Rome to resume the tradition after a twenty-year interruption.</p><br>
<p>The hill is featured in the third section of Ottorino Respighi&#39;s famous orchestral piece The Pines of Rome.</p><br>
<h2>Monuments</h2><br>
<p>The crest of the Janiculum is dominated by the 1895 equestrian Monument to Garibaldi, designed by Italian sculptor Emilio Gallori. This site was chosen for its proximity to the Villa Doria Pamphili, where Garibaldi mounted a military defense of the short-lived Roman Republic in late April 1849.</p><br>
<p>The hill also features a number of statues and monuments of prominent Italians. A 2011 guide published by the local Associazione Amilcare Cipriani group, after an extensive restoration of these monuments, lists a total of 84 busts on the hill.</p><br>
<p>Lake Bodom  is a lake in Finland located on the suburbs of the city of Espoo, not far from Helsinki. The lake measures approximately three kilometres in length and one kilometre in width.</p><br>
<p>The lake is notorious for murders that occurred in the early morning hours of June 5, 1960, when four teenagers (two boys, Nils Gustafsson and Seppo Boisman and two girls, Tuulikki Mäki and Irmeli Björklund) went on a camping trip to the lake and were mysteriously attacked while sleeping in their tent. Three were killed and one survived. This event is commonly referred to as the Lake Bodom murders. In June 2005, the only survivor, Gustafsson, was charged with murdering his friends. On October 7, 2005 the district court found him not guilty of all charges against him.</p><br>
<p>The Finnish melodic death metal band Children of Bodom, who are also from Espoo, derive their name from the lake. All the band members looked for good names in their local phone book. When they stumbled upon Lake Bodom, they felt it was a name with impact and one behind which was a story they found interesting.</p><br>
<p>Mount Zion  is a hill in Jerusalem just outside the walls of the Old City. The term Mount Zion has been used in the Hebrew Bible first for the City of David  and later for the Temple Mount, but its meaning has shifted and it is now used as the name of ancient Jerusalem&#39;s Western Hill. In a wider sense, the term is also used for the entire Land of Israel.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The etymology of the word Zion is uncertain. Mentioned in the Bible in the Book of Samuel (2 Samuel 5:7) as the name of the Jebusite fortress conquered by King David, its origin likely predates the Israelites. If Semitic, it may be associated with the Hebrew root ṣiyyôn ("castle") or the Arabic root ṣiyya ("dry land") or the Arabic šanā ("protect" or "citadel"). It might also be related to the Arabic root ṣahî ("ascend to the top") or ṣuhhay ("tower" or "the top of the mountain"). A non-Semitic relationship to the Hurrian word šeya ("river" or "brook") has also been suggested.</p><br>
<p>Sahyun (صهيون, Ṣahyūn or Ṣihyūn) is the word for Zion in Arabic and Syriac. A valley called Wâdi Sahyûn (wadi being the Arabic for "valley") seemingly preserves the name and is located approximately one and three-quarter miles (1.75 mi) from the Old City of Jerusalem&#39;s Jaffa Gate.</p><br>
<p>The phrase Har Tzion, lit. "Mount Zion", appears nine times in the Tanakh. It is spelled with a Tzadi and not Zayin.</p><br>
<h2>The three different locations</h2><br>
<p>The name Mount Zion referred successively to three locations, as Jerusalemites preserved the time-honoured name, but shifted the location they venerated as the focal point of biblical Jerusalem to the site considered most appropriate in their own time.</p><br>
<h3>Lower Eastern Hill (City of David)</h3><br>
<p>At first, Mount Zion was the name given to the Jebusite fortified city on the lower part of ancient Jerusalem&#39;s Eastern Hill, also known as the City of David.</p><br>
<p>According to the Book of Samuel, Mount Zion was the site of the Jebusite fortress called the "stronghold of Zion" that was conquered by King David, then renamed and partially rebuilt by him as the "City of David", where he erected his palace.</p><br>
<h3>Upper Eastern Hill (Temple Mount)</h3><br>
<p>Once the First Temple was erected at the top of the Eastern Hill, the name "Mount Zion" migrated there too.</p><br>
<p>After the conquest of the Jebusite city, its build-up area expanded northward towards the uppermost part of the same, Eastern Hill. This highest part became the site of Solomon&#39;s Temple.</p><br>
<p>The identification of the pre-Israelite (Jebusite) and Israelite towns on the Eastern Hill is based on the existence of only one perennial water source in the area, the Gihon Spring, and on archaeological excavations revealing sections of the Bronze Age and Iron Age city walls and water systems.</p><br>
<p>The "Mount Zion" mentioned in the later parts of the Book of Isaiah, in the Book of Psalms, and the First Book of Maccabees (c. 2nd century BCE) seems to refer to the top of the hill, generally known as the Temple Mount.</p><br>
<h3>Western Hill (today's Mount Zion)</h3><br>
<p>The last shift of the name Mount Zion was to the Western Hill, which is more dominant than the Eastern Hill and seemed to first-century CE Jerusalemites the worthier location for the by-then lost palace of King David. The Western Hill is what today is called Mount Zion.</p><br>
<p>In the second half of the First Temple period, the city expanded westward and its defensive walls were extended to include the entire Western Hill behind them. Nebuchadnezzar II destroyed the city almost completely around 586 BCE, severing the continuity of historical memory. A long period of rebuilding followed, ending with Jerusalem&#39;s second total destruction at the hands of the Romans in 70 CE. Josephus, the first-century CE historian who knew the city as it was before this second catastrophic event, identified Mount Zion as being the Western Hill, separated from the lower, Eastern Hill, by what he calls the "Tyropoeon Valley".</p><br>
<h2>History since the Late Roman period</h2><br>
<p>At the end of the Roman period, a synagogue was built at the entrance of the structure known as Davids Tomb, probably based on the belief that David brought the Ark of the Covenant here from Beit Shemesh and Kiryat Yearim before the construction of the Temple.</p><br>
<p>During the 1948 war, Mount Zion was conquered by the Harel Brigade on May 18, 1948 and became the only part of the Old City to stay in Israeli hands until the armistice. At first it was linked to the Jewish neighborhood of Yemin Moshe across the Valley of Hinnom via a narrow tunnel, but eventually an alternative was needed to evacuate the wounded and transport supplies to soldiers on Mt. Zion. A cable car capable of carrying a load of 250 kilograms was designed for this purpose. The cable car was only used at night and lowered into the valley during the day to escape detection; it is still in place at what is now the Mount Zion Hotel. The ride from the Israeli position at the St. John Eye Hospital to Mount Zion took two minutes.</p><br>
<p>Between 1948 and 1967, when the Old City was under Jordanian rule, Israelis were forbidden access to the Jewish holy places. Mount Zion was a designated no-mans land between Israel and Jordan. Mount Zion was the closest accessible site to the ancient Jewish Temple. Until East Jerusalem was captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, Israelis would climb to the rooftop of Davids Tomb to pray. The winding road leading up to Mount Zion is known as Popes Way (Derekh Haapifyor). It was paved in honor of the historic visit to Jerusalem of Pope Paul VI in 1964.</p><br>
<h2>Biblical references</h2><br>
<p>The Tanakh reference to Har Tzion (Mount Tzion) that identifies its location is derived from the Psalm 48 composed by the sons of Korah, i.e. Levites, as "the northern side of the city of the great king", which Radak interprets as the City of David "from the City of David, which is Zion (1 Kings 8:1-2; 2 Chron. 5:2)". 2 Samuel 5:7 also reads, "David took the strong hold of Zion: the same is the city of David," which identifies Mount Tzion as part of the City of David, and not an area outside today&#39;s Old City of Jerusalem. Rashi identifies the location as the source of "joy" mentioned in the Psalm as the Temple Courtyard, the location of atonement offerings in the northern part of the Temple complex.</p><br>
<p>In the New Testament, Mount Zion is used metaphorically to refer to the heavenly Jerusalem, God’s holy, eternal city. Christians are said to have “... come to Mount Zion and to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, to an innumerable company of angels, to the general assembly and church of the firstborn who are registered in heaven” (Hebrews 12:22-23 cf. Revelation 14:1).</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<p>Important sites on Mount Zion are Dormition Abbey, King Davids Tomb and the Room of the Last Supper. Most historians and archeologists today do not regard "Davids Tomb" there to be the actual burial place of King David. The Chamber of the Holocaust (Martef HaShoah), the precursor of Yad Vashem, is also located on Mount Zion. Another place of interest is the Catholic cemetery where Oskar Schindler, a Righteous Gentile who saved the lives of 1,200 Jews in the Holocaust, is buried. Notable burials in the Protestant cemetery on Mt. Zion include a number of prominent individuals from the 19th and 20th centuries. These include explorers and archaeologists such as Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, Charles Frederick Tyrwhitt Drake, James Duncan, Clarence Stanley Fisher, Charles Lambert and James Leslie Starkey; the architect Conrad Schick; and pioneers in the fields of medicine, education, religion, diplomacy and social services such as James Edward Hanauer, Ernest Masterman, John Nicholayson, Paul Palmer, Max Sandreczky, Johann Ludwig Schneller, Horatio G. Spafford, author of the hymn It Is Well With My Soul. Also buried in the cemetery are G. Douglas Young, founder of Jerusalem University College / Institute of Holy Land Studies, and his wife Georgina (Snook) Young. The cemetery is also the final resting place for a number of soldiers who fought in the First World War, as well as members of the Palestinian Police who served under the British mandate (1920-1948). Several persons buried here were killed in the bombing of the King David Hotel on the morning of 22 July 1946.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>In 1874, an Englishman, Henry Maudsley, discovered a large segment of rock scarp and numerous ancient dressed stones on Mount Zion that were believed to be the base of Josephus&#39;s First Wall. Several of these stones were used to construct a retaining wall outside the main gate of the Bishop Gobat school (later known as the American Institute of Holy Land Studies and Jerusalem University College).</p><br>
<p>The Tejon Pass , previously known as Portezuelo de Cortes, Portezuela de Castac, and Fort Tejon Pass, is a mountain pass between the southwest end of the Tehachapi Mountains and northeastern San Emigdio Mountains, linking Southern California north to the Central Valley. It has been traversed by major roads such as the El Camino Viejo, the Stockton – Los Angeles Road, the Ridge Route, USA Route 99, and now Interstate 5.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The highest point of the pass is near the northwestern-most corner of Los Angeles County, north of Gorman. Its highest point is 4,144 ft or 4,160 ft (the difference arises from the altitudes of Interstate 5, and both Peace Valley Road and Gorman Post Road that run next to the freeway at the pass&#39; apex, respectively), 75 mi northwest of downtown Los Angeles and 47 mi south of Bakersfield.</p><br>
<p>The route of Interstate 5 winds through Tejon Pass (the highway&#39;s highest point in the state), connecting the southern part of the state with the San Joaquin Valley and the north.</p><br>
<p>The pass has a gradual rise from its southern approach of 1,362 ft at Santa Clarita, but a precipitous descent through Grapevine Canyon toward the San Joaquin Valley on the north, where it ends at Grapevine at 1,499 ft.</p><br>
<p>On its northward slope lies Fort Tejon State Historic Park, the site of a former USA Army post, first garrisoned on August 10, 1854.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-Columbian</h3><br>
<p>Historians speak of the area around Gorman, California (just south of the crest of the Tejon Pass), as "one of the oldest continuously used roadside rest stops in California." This is because pre-Columbian indigenous Californians "would have stopped there when it was the Tataviam village of Kulshra&#39;jek", a trading crossroads for hundreds to thousands of years.</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1772, Lieutenant Pedro Fages crossed the pass in pursuit of military deserters, and named it Portezuelo de Cortes (Cortes Pass). Fages also named the canyon beyond the pass leading down into the Tulare Basin, Cañada de las Uvas (Canyon of the Grapes) for all the grape vines growing in it.</p><br>
<p>In the late 18th century, El Camino Viejo, a road between Los Angeles and the Mission Santa Clara de Asis began to be used for travel north and south along the western San Joaquin Valley. It crossed over the pass and turned westward up Cuddy Canyon and then down San Emigdio Creek into the San Joaquin Valley.</p><br>
<h3>Old Tejon Pass</h3><br>
<p>In 1806, Father Jose Maria Zalvidea, diarist for the expedition of First Lieutenant Francisco Ruiz into the San Joaquin Valley, named the canyon, creek, and pass which had been discovered in 1776 by the explorer priest, Father Francisco Garces. He recorded the name as "Tejon" (badger)—after a dead badger found at the canyon&#39;s mouth. This original Tejon Pass (later called "Old Tejon Pass"), was situated 15 miles to the northeast of what is now Tejon Pass. The old pass went through the Tehachapi Mountains, at the top of the divide between Tejon Creek Canyon in the San Joaquin Valley and Cottonwood Creek Canyon in Antelope Valley.</p><br>
<p>Before 1854, the main route of travel into the San Joaquin Valley had come directly north from Elizabeth Lake (originally Laguna de Chico Lopez) across the Antelope Valley, over this original Tejon Pass, and down into Tejon Canyon, and then proceeded west along Tejon Creek—into the lands of the Rancho Tejon, that had been granted in 1843. This route to the pass diverted from the El Camino Viejo at Elisabeth Lake, and from 1849 to before 1854 it was the main road connecting the southern part of the state to the trail along the eastern side of the San Joaquin Valley to the goldfields to the north. Herbert G. Comfort; Enterprise Press; Moorpark, Ca; 1934; (#255); Chapter IV, "The Founding of Fort Tejon; pp. 21-52. "Before 1854, the main line of travel into the valley was straight North from Elizabeth Lake across Antelope Valley, entering the San Joaquin by way of the original Tejon Pass, at the head of Tejon Creek, above the present headquarters of Tejon Rancho. The establishment of the Fort Diverted this general travel to the West almost 29 miles to the present Tejon Pass, then known as Fort Tejon Pass. As the Tejon Creek Pass was abandoned, the name Tejon Pass came to be used solely for</p><br>
<p>the pass leading into Canada de las Uvas."</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<h4>Castaic Pass</h4><br>
<p>In 1843, Rancho Castac was established in La Cañada de las Uvas. During that same year, the first grant of Rancho Los Alamos y Agua Caliente included the pass, which was now called Portezuela de Castac (Castaic Pass).</p><br>
<h4>Fort Tejon Pass</h4><br>
<p>After the establishment of Fort Tejon and the Stockton - Los Angeles Road, the Portezuela de Castac began to be called the "Fort Tejon Pass." The rather poor wagon route of the old Tejon Pass route was generally abandoned, and eventually the Fort Tejon Pass took the shortened name it has today.</p><br>
<p>In 1858 the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach line ran through the pass on the Stockton - Los Angeles Road. The Butterfield Overland was discontinued in 1861 but was replaced by the Telegraph Stage Line, which stopped at almost all the former stations, including Gormans, where the horses were changed. Six of them were used for the pull up from Bakersfield to Gormans.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>The Ridge Route was the first automobile highway linking the Central Valley with the Los Angeles Basin. It was laid in a sinuous fashion through the ridges and gullies of the Sierra Pelona Mountains to the Tejon Pass around 1910. The northern portion of this highway, which became a part of USA Route 99, was known as "The Grapevine." The Ridge Route was replaced by a three-lane alternate highway in 1933, a four-lane expressway in 1947, and later by the eight-lane Interstate 5 Freeway in 1970.</p><br>
<h2>Weather concerns</h2><br>
<p>The pass is sunny in the summer, spring, and fall, but is subject to severe weather and closure to traffic in the winter. The 40-mile stretch of Interstate 5 between Grapevine and Castaic is sometimes closed by the California Highway Patrol, generally because of the icy conditions combined with the steep grade of the pass, and the high traffic during the winter holidays. The Highway Patrol is also concerned, especially with the number of big-rigs that pass through, that one accident in the snowy conditions might force traffic to slow down or come to a complete stop, leaving hundreds of vehicles stalled at once. Whenever there is such a closure, traffic must either wait for it to reopen, or endure a multi-hour detour running between Bakersfield and Los Angeles via CA 58.</p><br>
<h2>Communities</h2><br>
<p>This historic gap has given its name to the Mountain Communities of the Tejon Pass. Beginning on the south at Santa Clarita, it passes through Castaic, Gorman, and Lebec, to end at Grapevine. It skirts the Tejon Ranch, where two large planned communities—Centennial and Tejon Mountain Village—are proposed.</p><br>
